英語國家概況資料

英語國家概況資料；第一章；LandandPeople英國的國土與人民；I.DifferentNamesforBrita；英國的不同名稱及其各組成部分1.Geograph；地理名稱：不列顛群島，大不列顛和英格蘭；2.Officialname:theUnited；官方正式名稱：大不列顛及北愛爾蘭聯(lián)合王國；3.TheBritishIslesaremade；不列顛群

英語國家概況資料

第一章

Land and People 英國的國土與人民

I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts

英國的不同名稱及其各組成部分 1.Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and LACE w:st="on">EnglandLACE>.

地理名稱：不列顛群島，大不列顛和英格蘭。

2.Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

官方正式名稱：大不列顛及北愛爾蘭聯(lián)合王國。

3.The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and LACE w:st="on">Ireland, and hundreds of small ones.

不列顛群島由兩個大島—大不列顛島（較大的一個）和愛爾蘭島，及成千上萬個小島組成。

4.Three political divisions on the LACETYPE

w:st="on">islandLACETYPE> of LACENAME w:st="on">Great BritainLACENAME>: England, Scotland and LACE w:st="on">WalesLACE>.

大不列顛島上有三個政治區(qū)：英格蘭、蘇格蘭和威爾士。

(1) England is in the southern part of LACE w:st="on">Great BritainLACE>. It is the largest, most populous section.

英格蘭位于大不列顛島南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地區(qū)。

(2) Scotland is in the north of LACE w:st="on">Great BritainLACE>. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north; the Central lowlands; the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh 蘇格蘭位于大不列顛的北部。它有三大自然區(qū)：北部高地，中部低地及南部山陵。首府：愛丁堡。

(3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff

威爾士位于大不列顛的西部。首府：加的夫

(4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast. 北愛爾蘭是英國第四個區(qū)域。首府：貝爾法斯特。

5.The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991. 英聯(lián)邦是獨立的前英國殖民地組成的自由聯(lián)合體。它成立于1931年，至1990年止已有50個成員國。 第二章

The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066) 英國的起源（公元前5000年—1066年）

I.Arrival and settlement of the Celts 克爾特人的到來和定居

Celts were practiced famers. The drained much of marshlands and built houses of wood.They wre ironworkers, too. Their languages, the Celts languages, are the basis of the language which is still used by some people in Scotland and Wales. Their religion was Druidism ( OCK  aspectratio="t">OCK>n.德魯伊教). 克爾特人是有經(jīng)驗的農民，他們排干沼澤地，用木材建造房屋。他們還打造鐵器。蘇格蘭和威爾士語就是以他們的語言為基礎發(fā)展而來的。

1、 The Celts began to arrive Britain about 700 BC.

約公元前700年，克爾特人來到不列顛島。

2、The Celts came to Britain in three main waves.

克爾特人來到不列顛有三次高潮。 The first wave were the Gaels-came about 600 BC.

第一次高潮是約公元前600年蓋爾人的來臨。

The second wave were the Brythons-came about 400 BC.

第二次高潮是約公元前400年布列吞人的抵達。

The third wave were the Belgae-came about 150 BC.

第三次是約公元前150年比利其人的到達。

II. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871) 盎格魯—撒克遜人（公元446—871年） 1． Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons.

盎格魯—薩克遜時代（奠定了英國的基礎）

In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes.

①The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449.②Then the Saxons, users of the short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. ③In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy.

五世紀中葉，朱特人、撒克遜人和盎格魯人不斷入侵不列顛。這是三支日耳曼（條頓）部落。

居住在日德蘭半島（現(xiàn)丹麥南部）上從事打漁農耕的朱特人先抵不列顛。一個朱特人首領于449年當上了國王。后來從德國北部來的使用短劍的撒克遜人在埃撒克斯、蘇塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王國，統(tǒng)治期從五世紀末至六世紀初。六世紀后半葉，同樣來自德國北部的盎格魯人，在東盎格利亞、麥西亞以及諾森伯利來定居，同時把他們的族名加諸在英國人夠上。這七個主要王國（肯特、埃塞克斯、蘇塞克斯、威塞克斯、東英吉利亞、麥西亞和諾森伯利亞），合稱為七王國。 2．The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity.

最早的盎格魯—撒克遜人改信基督教。

The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrew’s Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen (異教的) English to Christianity. In 597 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the common people was largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north.

盎格魯—撒克遜人把日耳曼宗教帶到了英國。除了康瓦爾、威爾士、蘇格蘭和愛爾蘭中的克爾特人還信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元597，教皇格里高一世把羅馬圣安德魯修道院的院長圣奧古斯丁派遣到英格蘭，其使命是使異教徒的英國人皈依基督教。公元579年圣奧古丁成為坎特伯雷大主教。在使國王和貴族皈依基督教方面，奧古斯丁特別成功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上歸功于北方修道們的傳教活動。

3．The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English state.(formation of the English nation)

早期盎格魯—撒克遜人為英國做出的貢獻。 The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state.

Firstly, they ①divided the country into shires (which the Normans later called counties), with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law. Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-field ②farming system which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also ③established the manorial system(莊園制). Finally, they ④created the Witan（council or meeting of the wisemen） to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.

盎格魯—撒克遜人構筑了英國的國家基礎。首先，他們把國家劃分為郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法長官負責執(zhí)法。其次，他們設計的窄條三區(qū)輪作制延用至18世紀。此外，他們還建立了領地制。最后，他們還創(chuàng)立了咨議會(賢人會議)，向國王提供建議，這就成為了今天尚存的樞密院的前身。

IV．Viking and Danish invasions 北歐海盜和丹麥人的入侵 1．The invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century. They became a serious problem in the 9th century, especially between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat to the Saxon kingdom of Wessex.

入侵者是挪威人和丹麥人，從8世紀末開始，他們不斷襲擊英格蘭的各個地方。9世紀，尤其是公元835-878年間已成為嚴重問題。他們甚至占領了約克郡，公元867年時的基督教中心。到9世紀中葉，北歐海盜和丹麥人威脅到撒克遜人的威撒克斯王國的安全。

2．King Alfred (849-899) and his contributions

艾爾弗雷德國王（849-899）和他所做出的貢獻

Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians.

He ①founded a strong fleet and is known as “ the father of the British navy”. He ②reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He ③translated a Latin book into English. He also ④established schools and ⑤formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great.”

阿爾弗雷德是威塞克斯的國王。他打敗了丹麥人，并于公元879年與他們達成了友好協(xié)議。協(xié)議規(guī)定丹麥人控制英格蘭北部和西部（丹麥法區(qū)），而他統(tǒng)治其他地區(qū)。他還勸服一些丹麥首領成為基督教徒。 他因為建立了強大艦隊，而以“英國海軍之父”聞名于世。他改組了“弗立德”（撒克遜軍隊），使之更為高效。他將一本拉丁語的書翻譯成英語。同時他還建立了學校，并且闡明了法律制度。所有這一切使他當之無愧于“阿爾弗雷德大王。”的稱號。

V．The Norman Conquest (1066) 諾曼征服（公元1066年） 1．Reasons for William’s invasion of England after Edward’s death. 威廉在愛德華死后入侵英國的原因。

It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, during the important battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. One Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus beginning the Norman Conquest of England.

據(jù)說，愛德華國王曾答應把英格蘭王位傳給諾曼底公爵威廉，但是賢人會議挑選了哈羅德為國王。公元1066年10月，在哈斯丁斯附近的激烈交鋒中，威廉打敗了哈羅德軍隊，在圣誕節(jié)加冕，成為英國國王，從此開始了諾曼征服。

2．The Norman Conquest and its consequences

諾曼征服及其產(chǎn)生的影響。

The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps ①the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror ② confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with ③a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. ④Relations with the Continent were opened, and the civilization and commerce were extended. ⑤Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced. ⑥The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts.

1066年的諾曼征服也許是英國歷史上的最著名事件。征服者威廉幾乎沒收了所有土地，將其分發(fā)給他的諾曼追隨者。他用強有力的諾曼政府代替了軟弱的薩克遜政府。于是，封建制度在英國完全建立。開放了與歐洲大陸的關系，文明和商業(yè)得到發(fā)展，引進了諾曼—法蘭西文化、語言、教會與羅馬的聯(lián)系更為密切，教會法庭與民事法庭分離。

3．The English is a mixture of nationalities of different origins. The ancestors of many English people were the ancient Angles and Saxons. Some English people are of the Norman-French origin.

英國是一個集不同民族于一體的國家。許多英國人的祖先是古盎格魯和撒克遜人。而還有一些英國人的是諾曼血統(tǒng)。 Chapter 3 第三章

The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381)

英國的形成（公元1066-1381） I. Norman Rule (1066-1381) 諾曼統(tǒng)治（公元1066-1381） 1. William's Rule （1066-1087） 威廉一世的統(tǒng)治（公元1066-1087） England's feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror

在威廉統(tǒng)治下的英國封建制度

①Under William, the feudal system in England was completely established. ②According to this system, the King owned all the land personally. ③William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the land's produce. ④These estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. ⑤The barons, who had become William's tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also in return for goods and services. ⑥At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs. ⑦One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance，not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king. ①在威廉統(tǒng)治下，英國的封建制度得到完全確立。②根據(jù)此制度，國王擁有全國所有土地。③威廉把英國的大片土地分給貴族，條件是換取對方服役和物品。④這些地產(chǎn)分散于各處，相距遙遠，這樣土地擁有者就不易聯(lián)合起來反叛國王。⑤已成為國王總佃戶的貴族又把土地分配給小貴族、騎士和自由民，同樣換取貨物和服役。⑥處于封建等級最底層的是農奴。⑦英國封建制獨有的特色就是，無論是土地承租人還是二佃戶，都必須要宣誓效忠于直接地主，而且要效忠于國王。 II．Contents and the significance of the Great Charter

《大憲章》的內容及意義

Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council; (2) no freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property; (3) the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections; (4) London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. (significance) Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the ① foundation of English liberties, it was a ②statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons, ③a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a ④ limitation of the powers of the king. The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land. 《大憲章》是約翰國王1215年在封建貴族壓力下簽定的?！洞髴椪隆房偣?/span>63條，其中最重要的內容是：(1) 未經(jīng)大議會同意，不得征稅；(2) 只有根據(jù)國家有關法律才能逮捕、監(jiān)禁自由人以及剝奪他們的財產(chǎn)；(3)教會應享受其所有權利且有選舉自由；（4） 倫敦和其它城鎮(zhèn)應保留其貴族的傳統(tǒng)權力和特權；(5) 全國要統(tǒng)一度量衡。盡管人們普遍認為《大憲章》為英國的自由奠定了基礎，但該憲章只是規(guī)定國王和貴族之間封建關系和法律關系的聲明書，保證了教會的自由，限制了國王權利?！洞髴椪隆返木駥嵸|就是把國王的權利限制在英國封建法律允許的范圍之內。

III.The origins of the English Parliament

英國議會的起源

The Great Council is known to be the prototype (原型) of the current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned （召集） the Great Council, together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice，not to make decisions. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords.

大議會是當今英國議會的原型。1265年，西門德孟福爾召開大議會，各縣有兩名騎士，各鎮(zhèn)有兩名市民參加。大議會發(fā)展到后來演變成議會，分為上議院和下議院。其作用是咨詢而非決定；也沒有選舉和政黨。議會的最重要的部分是上議院。

英語國家概況精講系列（六） IV．The Hundred Years' War and its consequences.

百年戰(zhàn)爭及其結果

The Hundred Years’ War refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. ①The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy of Aquitaine in France, as the French kings grew stronger,they increasingly coveted this large slice. ②The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, England's desire to ③stop France from giving aid to Scots and ④ a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes. The English's being driven out of France is ① regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France, the superior size and wealth of France would have ②hindered the development of a separate English national identity, ③ while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory.

百年戰(zhàn)爭指1337年到1453年英法之間一場斷斷續(xù)續(xù)的戰(zhàn)爭，戰(zhàn)爭的起因既有領土因素又有經(jīng)濟因素。領土起因尤其是英國國王占領了法國的阿基坦大片公爵領地，這是戰(zhàn)爭的根源，隨著法國國王勢力日增，他們渴望占領這片土地。經(jīng)濟原因則與弗蘭德斯城有關。弗蘭德斯地區(qū)生產(chǎn)棉布的城鎮(zhèn)是英國羊毛的主要進口商，但這些城鎮(zhèn)在政治上卻效忠法國國王。其他原因還有英國試圖阻止法國對蘇格蘭人的援助，并且壓制不斷增強的民族意識。 戰(zhàn)爭的結果：把英國人趕出法國對兩個國家都是幸事：若英國人繼續(xù)留在法國，那么法國人在領土和財富上所占的優(yōu)勢必然會阻礙獨立的英國的發(fā)展；而在英國占領大量法國領土的情況下，法國也很難統(tǒng)一。 Three stages of the war 戰(zhàn)爭的三個階段

In the first two stages, the English won some big victories. But in the third stage, they were driven out of Fance.戰(zhàn)爭初期，英國取得輝煌勝利。但是最終被逐出法國

The battle of Argencourt 阿壤科之戰(zhàn)

It took place in 1415 and the English won a crushing victory. After the victory, the English king Henry Ⅴ was recognized as the French King.1415年英國大獲全勝，亨利5世登上法國王位。

Joan of Arc (1412-1431)貞德女士 Joan of Arc was a nation heroine in French history. She led and encourages the French in driving the English out of French in the Hundred Years’ War. 貞德是法國歷史上的女英雄，她領導和鼓舞法國人民將英國軍隊驅逐處境。

Consequences of the war 戰(zhàn)爭的后果影響

①The English lost the war. The expulsion of the English from French is regarded as a blessing for both countries.② It helped English national identity as well as French national identity. ③Two separate nation were born after the war. V. The Black Death 黑死病

The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly bubonic plague,an epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced England's population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century.

The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the plague, much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The surviving peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labour. Some landlords, unable or unwilling to pay higher wages, tried to force peasants back into serfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labourers which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or

for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace.

黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤傳播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫，是一種流行疾病，在14世紀傳播了到歐洲。1348年夏天橫掃全英國。英國的人口在14世紀末從400萬銳減至200萬。

黑死病對經(jīng)濟造成的后果更為深遠。鼠疫導致了大片土地無人照管和勞動力極度匱乏。地主想把耕地變?yōu)槿肆π枨筝^少的牧場。存活的農民處于有利的討價還價地位，從農奴變?yōu)楣蛡騽趧恿?。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付較高工資的地主想方設法迫使農民重返農奴地位。1351年政府頒布“勞工法令”，規(guī)定農民們漲工資的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制訂的工資水平要高的工資都是犯罪。

第四章

Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688)

向現(xiàn)代英國的過渡

I. Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485)

向近代英國的過渡(1455年-1485年)

The Wars of Rose 玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭

The nature and consequences of the Wars of the Roses.

The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put the country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened.

玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭是指，從1455年到1485年，以紅玫瑰為象征的蘭開斯特大家族和以白玫瑰為象征的約克家族之間戰(zhàn)爭的普遍接受的名稱。1485年，蘭開斯特家族的后代亨利都鐸取得了博斯沃恩戰(zhàn)役的勝利，建立了都鐸王朝。這些戰(zhàn)爭使英國的封建主義受到致命打擊，貴族階層受到了削弱。

II. Henry VIII and The English Reformation

亨利八世和英國的宗教改革

Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main causes: a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believed its time had come; the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented; and Henry needed money.亨利八世最重要的改革是負責進行教會的宗教改革。改革原因有三個主要方面：多年來，人們改革教會的意愿不斷增長，現(xiàn)在又受馬丁路德成功的鼓舞，許多人認為時機已到；教職人員的特權和財富已引起民憤；亨利需要錢。 The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon but the Pope refused. Henry’s reforms was to get rid of the English Church’s connection with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England’s monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws such as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England. 改革以爭取離婚而開始，以脫離教皇而告終。亨利八世欲與阿拉貢的凱瑟琳離婚，但是教皇拒絕了。亨利改革的目的是擺脫英國教會與教皇的聯(lián)系，成立獨立的英格蘭教會。1529年至1534年間逐漸地與羅馬脫離了關系。他解散了所有英國的修道院和修女院，因為后者對教皇比對英國國王更忠誠。1534年的《繼位法》和1535年的《王權法案》使改革具有了可行性。1535年他獲“英格蘭教會最高首腦”之稱號。 Henry VIII’s reform stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry’s position; Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Pope’s power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away from Catholicism towards protestant ideology.

改革的三大影響：亨利的改革強調了君主權力，自然鞏固了亨利的地位；議會以往從未做過如此漫長而重要的工作，自然其重要性也有所加強；他對教皇權力的打擊鼓舞許多人批評指責天主教會，并希望從天主教轉向新教。

III. Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

伊莉莎白一世（1558年-1603年）

Elizabeth I and parliament

(1)Elizabeth I was the last monarch of the Tudor Dynasty. She was able to work with Paliament.She avoided troubling Parliament too often for pounds by making strict economies at Court.But the relationship was often turbulent. Because Parliament demanded that its right of free speech be confirmed in writing and it be allowed to discuss all important questions at will. Elizabeth I did not agree to their demands.為了避免經(jīng)常向議會索要資金，伊莉莎白在王室內部制定了嚴格的節(jié)約制度。但是，她與議會的關系也經(jīng)常不穩(wěn)定。因為議會需要用文字形式對言論自由的一般權力加以確定，同時希望可以隨時對重要問題進行討論。伊不同意他們的要求。

Elizabeth's religious reform and her foreign policy

伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策 Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England,i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. His religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics.

For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England was able to face the danger from Spain.

伊莉莎白的宗教改革是對不同觀點的妥協(xié)。她中斷瑪麗與羅馬的關系，恢復她父親在位時獨立的英格蘭教會，也就是說保持天主教教條及習俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教定論既不被以清教徒知名的新教極端分子所接受，也不為虔誠的天主教徒所接受。

近30年的時間，伊莉莎白成功挑起了兩大天主教強國法國和西班牙互相斗殺，從而免于英國卷入任何主要的歐洲國的沖突。通過她從未具體化的聯(lián)姻，伊莉莎白設法與法國維持友好關系，因此英國能面對來自西班牙的危險。

IV. The English Renaissance 英國文藝復興

Distinctive features of the English Renaissance

英國文藝復興的特點

1) English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics;

2) England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history elsewhere in Europe;

3) Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for foreign influences without being subjected by them; 4) English Renaissance literature is primarily artistic,rather than philosophical and scholarly; 5)the Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England.

英國文藝復興的五個特點：1）英國文化的復興直接受古典作品影響不大，更大的影響來自于受古典作品熏陶的當代歐洲人；2）由于英國是一個島國家，其社會和政治歷史進程與歐洲其他國家相去甚遠；3）由于14世紀偉大的天才詩人喬叟的出現(xiàn)，英國本國文學得以蓬勃發(fā)展，能夠在吸收外國文學影響的同時，并未處于從屬地位；4）英國文藝復興文學主要是文藝方面而不是哲學的和學術方面；5）文藝復興和英格蘭的宗教改革正好同步。

VI. The Civil Wars and their consequences

Because of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22,1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death.

The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King, and a conflict between economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed coincided with their religious ( Puritan) ideology while the Crown’s traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history.

由于查爾斯的“君權神授”統(tǒng)治權，他與議會的對質發(fā)展成了內戰(zhàn)。戰(zhàn)爭開始于1642年8月22日，結束于1651年。最后查爾斯被處死。 英國內戰(zhàn)又稱為清教徒革命。這是議會和國王間的沖突，也是城市中產(chǎn)階級的經(jīng)濟利益與皇室傳統(tǒng)經(jīng)濟利益之間的沖突。城市中產(chǎn)階級經(jīng)濟利益剛好與他們的宗教（清教）思想吻合，相應地，皇室傳統(tǒng)的經(jīng)濟利益則與圣公會教的宗教信仰相結合在一起。英國內戰(zhàn)不僅推翻了英國的封建制度，而且動搖了歐洲的封建基礎。英國內戰(zhàn)通常被看作是現(xiàn)代世界史的開端。

The Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell(p.57)

Cromwell was leader of the first civil war against charles I. His famous “Ironside” cavalry and New Model Army(新模范軍) defeated the king. After the War he was made Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England and he instituted direct military rule of the country.

After king Charles I’s exection in 1649, Oliver Cromwell and the “Rump”（殘余國會）declared England a Commonwealth.There was no king, no House of Lords in England. The Commonwealth ended in 1660 when Charles II became king. 克倫威爾領導了第一次對抗查理1世內戰(zhàn)。他著名的鐵騎軍和新模范軍擊敗了國王。戰(zhàn)后同時他成為英倫之島共和國的護國公，建立直接軍隊領導制度。當查里一世1649年被處決后，克倫威爾和他的殘余國會宣布英格蘭為共和國。沒有國王和上議院。共和國于1660年查里2世登基結束。

The Restoration

王政復辟----------------------1660

When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard, the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwell's generals George Monck, occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late King's son to return from his exile in France as king Charles II. It was called the Restoration.

1658年奧利弗克倫威爾去世，他的兒子理查德繼任護國公，政權立即開始瓦解。克倫威爾的一位將軍喬治蒙克占領倫敦，安排新的議會選舉。1660年選出的議會要求上一任國王的兒子長期流亡地法國回國作國王查爾斯二世，這就是所謂的王政復辟。

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 1688年光榮革命------------------1688 In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe, was a Catholic. He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious views. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution.

1685年查爾斯二世去世，由其弟詹姆斯二世繼位。詹姆斯二世從小在歐洲流亡長大，是個天主教徒，他希望不放棄個人宗教信仰統(tǒng)治國家。但是1688的英國已不象40年前那樣能容忍天主教徒當國王了。英國政客反對詹姆斯二世，他們呼吁信奉新教的國王，奧蘭治親王威謙入侵英國奪取王位。1688年11月15日威廉在托爾比登陸并占領倫敦。這一占領相對平靜，既未流血也未處死國王，所以就稱為“光榮革命”。

第五章

The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (1688-1990) 大英帝國的興衰 I. Whigs and Tories 輝格黨人和托利黨人

These two party names originated with the Glorious Revolution (1688). 這兩個政黨名稱皆起源于1688年的光榮革命。

The Whig were those who opposed absolute monarchy and supported the right to religious freedom for Nonconformists. The Whig were to form a coalition with dissident Tories in the mid-19th century and become the Liberal Party.

輝格黨人是指那些反對絕對王權，支持新教徒宗教自由權利的人。輝格黨人在19世紀中葉與持不同意見的托利黨人組成聯(lián)盟，建立自由黨。

The Tories were those who supported hereditary monarchy and were reluctant to remove kings. The Tories were the forerunners of the Conservative Party.

托利黨人是指那些支持世襲王權、不愿去除國王的人。托利黨是保守黨的前身。 I. Agricultural Changes in the Late 18th Century

18世紀末的農業(yè)革命

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the “open-field” system ended when the Enclosure Act was passed. The movement lasted for centuries. Agricultural enclosure had good as well as bad results: 18世紀末、19世紀初的農業(yè)革命期間，隨著《圈地法》的頒布，傳統(tǒng)的“開放田地”制結束。圈地運動持續(xù)了將近一個多世紀。農業(yè)圈地運動的利弊共存：

（1） Farms became bigger and bigger units as the great bought up the small;

由于大農場兼并了小農場，規(guī)模越來越大；

（2） More vegetables, more milk and more dairy produce were consumed, and diet became more varied;

人們消費的蔬菜，牛奶及奶制品越來越多，飲食種類愈加豐富；

（3） Enclosure was a disaster for the tenants evicted from their lands by the enclosures. These peasant farmers were forced to look for work in towns. Enclosure led to mass emigration, particularly to the New World;

圈地對佃家而言是場災難，他們被趕出土地，被迫到城鎮(zhèn)找工作。圈地運動導致了大規(guī)模的移民，尤其是移民至新大陸。

（4） A new class hostility was introduced into rural relationships. 農村關系中產(chǎn)生了新的階級對立。

II. The Industrial Revolution (1780-1830)

工業(yè)革命（1780-1830） 1．The industrial Revolution refers to the mechanisation of industry and the consequent changes in social and economic organization in Britain in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

工業(yè)革命指的是17世紀末、18世紀初英國工業(yè)的機械化，以及因此而導致的社會結構和經(jīng)濟結構的變化。

2．Britain was the first country to industrialize because of the following factors:

英國成為第一個工業(yè)化的國家，原因如下：

(1) Favourable geopraphical location. Britain was well placed geographically to participate in European and world trade;

優(yōu)越的地理位置：英國地理位置優(yōu)越，適合參與歐洲與世界貿易； (2) Political stability. Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th century, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. International trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods provided capital in large quantities for industralization.

政治局面穩(wěn)定。17世紀后的英國社會寧靜，對海外貿易和殖民地興趣日增。國際貿易給商人和城市銀行家?guī)碡敻?，他們加上由于新農作法而發(fā)家的人們?yōu)楣I(yè)化提供了大筆資金。

(3) The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy. 1688年光榮革命限制了君主的權力，這使得強大的經(jīng)濟利益集團能對政府政策施加影響。

(4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their products.

英國的主要城鎮(zhèn)皆靠近海港或河流，貨物運送便利。

(5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.

英國許多河流不僅用于交通，還提供水力及蒸汽動力。英國還有可用的礦產(chǎn)資源。

(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.

英國工程師為訓練有素的手工藝人。

(7) The inventors were respected. They solved practical problems.

發(fā)明家受人尊重，他們解決了實際難題。

(8) Probably laissez faire and “Protestant work ethic” helped.

自由貿易及“新教工作倫理”可能起到一定作用

(9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union after 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national market was not hindered by internal customs barriers.

1707年后，英格蘭、蘇格蘭和威爾士形成海關協(xié)會，1807年后愛爾蘭加入。因此，全國市場不再受制于國內海關的約束。

(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labour for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry.

圈地運動和其它農業(yè)改良為增加的人口提供了糧食，為工廠提供了勞動力，為工業(yè)提供了所需的一些原材料。 3．Typical examples of the inventions during the Industrial Revolution 工業(yè)革命中一些重大創(chuàng)新

(1) John Kay’s flying shuttle in 1733; 1733年，約翰凱的飛梭；

(2) James Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny in 1766;

1766年詹姆士哈格里夫斯詹妮紡紗機；

(3) Richard Arkwright’s waterframe in 1769;

1769年理查德阿克賴特的水力紡織機；

(4) Samuel Crompton’s mule in 1779 1779年塞繆爾克朗普頓的走綻紡紗機；

(5) Edmund Cartwright’s power loom in 1784;

1784年愛德蒙卡特萊特發(fā)明的力織機；

(6) James Watt’s steam engine in 1765.

1765年詹姆斯瓦特的高效蒸汽機。 4．Consequences of the industrial Revolution

工業(yè)革命的結果

（1） Britain was by 1830 the “workshop of the world”;

使英國在1830年成為了“世界工場”；

（2） Towns grew rapidly and became the source of the nation’s wealth.

城鎮(zhèn)迅速興起，成為國家財富的源泉。

（3） Mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it . The working men worked and lived in a appalling conditions.

機械化摧毀了無法投入其中的人們的生活。工人們在極其惡劣的條件下勞動與生活。

（4） The industrial revolution created the industrial working class, the proletariat, and it later led to trade unionism.

工業(yè)革命產(chǎn)生了工人階級，即無產(chǎn)階級。后來形成了工會制度。

III. The Chartist Movement (1836-1848)

憲章運動（1836-1848）

1. Reasons for parliamentary reforms.

議會改革的原因

(1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.

權力被貴族壟斷。

(2) Representation of town and country, and North and South was unfair.

議會中城鎮(zhèn)和農村，北方和南方的代表分配極不公平。

(3) There were also various so-called rotten or pocket boroughs.

還有各種稱之為腐敗選區(qū)或口袋選區(qū)。

2．Three Reform Bills(1832-1884) 三個改革法案

Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed.

1832年至1884年間通過了三個改革法案。

a) The Reform Act of 1832 (also called the “Greater Charter of 1832) abolished “rotten boroughs”, and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly among the growing towns. It also gave the vote to many householders and tenants, based on the value of their property. 1832年的《改革法案》（也稱為1832年的大憲章）廢除了“腐敗選區(qū)”；在新興城鎮(zhèn)中較為公平地重新分配了議席；以財產(chǎn)價值為基礎賦予許多屋主和佃家選舉權。

b) The New Poor Law of 1834 forced the poor people into work houses instead of giving them sufficient money to survive in their own homes.

1834年的新濟貧法強迫窮人進工廠，而沒有給他們足夠的錢在自己的家里謀生。

3．A People’s Charter 人民憲章

There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law. In 1836, a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Working Men’s Association. They drew up a charter of political demands (a People’s Charter) in 1838, with the intention of presenting it to Parliament. It had six points: (1)the vote for all adult males; (2)voting by secret ballot; (3)equal electoral districts; (4)abolition of property qualifications for members of Parliament; (5)payment of members of Parliament; (6)annual Parliaments, with a General Election every June.

1832年的《改革法案》和《新濟貧法》引起了普遍不滿。1836年，一群技術工人和小店主組成倫敦工人協(xié)會。他們于1838年起草了有關政治要求的憲章（人民憲章），想把它呈送給議會。憲章有六點內容：（1）所有成年男子都有選舉權；（2）進行無記名投票；（3）劃分認輸相等的選區(qū)；（4）廢除議員的財產(chǎn)資格要求；（5）議員應有報酬；（6）議會每年六月進行大選。

4．Results of the Chartist Movement 憲章運動的結果。

Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism. The working class still immature, without the leadership of a political party armed with correct revolutionary theory. The Chartist movement was, however, the first nationwide working class movement and drew attention to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradually over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was “the first broad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian revolutionary movement.”

由于領導層的軟弱和分歧，由于缺少與工會的協(xié)調，憲章運動失敗了。當時的工人階級還未成熟，沒有正確的革命理論武裝的政黨領導。但是，憲章運動是第一次全國范圍的工人階級運動，引起了對許多嚴重問題的關注。在1858至1918年間，六項要求逐漸達到，盡管第六項從未成為現(xiàn)實。列寧說憲章運動是“第一個廣泛的、真正群眾參與的，有政治組織形式的無產(chǎn)階級革命運動。”

II. Colonial Expansion 殖民地擴張

1. The growth of dominions 自治領的興起

English colonial expansion began with the colonization of Newfoundland in 1583. Encouraged by Britain’s control of the seas, especially by the rising tide of emigration, British colonialists stepped up their expansion to Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries. By 1900, Britain had built up a big empire, “on which the sun never set”. It consisted of a vast number of protectorates, Crown colonies, spheres of influence, and self-governing dominions. It included 25% of the world’s population and area.

英國殖民擴張開始于1583年紐芬蘭的殖民化。在18世紀末、19世紀初，英國在海上的稱霸，尤其是移民浪潮的高漲，鼓舞了英國殖民者，加速他們的擴張到加拿大、澳大利亞、新西蘭。到1900年英國已建立了“日不落”的大英帝國，包括受保護國、英國殖民地、勢力范圍和自治領，占世界人口與面積的25%。

Canada was ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris. French rights were guaranteed by the Quebec Act of 1774. The Canada Act of 1791 divided Canada into Upper Canada where the British had settled, and Lower Canada populated by the French. The British North America Act of 1867 established Canada as a dominion.

1763年簽訂的《巴黎條約》將加拿大割讓給英國。1774年的《魁北克法》保證了法國的權益。之后，1791年《加拿大法》把加拿大分為上加拿大和下加拿大，前者是英國人的定居地，后者是法國人的居住點。1867年《英國北美法案》確定加拿大為自治領。

English began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788. Free settlement began in 1816, and no convicts were sent to Australia after 1840. The gold rushes (1851-1892) brought more people to Australia, and in 1901 the six self-governing were united in one dominion-the independent Commonwealth of Australia.

1788年英國人開始把囚犯流放到澳大利亞。1816年開始可以自由定居，1840年后囚犯不再流放到澳大利亞。1851年至1892年的淘金熱使更多的人擁到澳洲。1901年，六個自治領統(tǒng)一為一個自治領—澳大利亞獨立聯(lián)邦。

New Zealand became a separate colony of Britain in 1841, achieved self-government in 1852, became a dominion under the British crown in 1907 and was made completely independent in 1931.

1841年新西蘭成為獨立殖民地，1852年實現(xiàn)自治，1907年成為英皇屬下的自治領，1931年完全獨立。 1. The Conquest of India 征服印度

The establishment of British East India Company established in 1600 was a case of economic penetration. By 1819 the British conquest of most India was almost complete. After the muting of Bengal army in 1857, the control of India passed to the British Crown and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.

1600年英國東印度公司的建立堪稱典型的經(jīng)濟滲透。到1819年英國對印度的征服已基本完成。1857年東印度公司孟加拉軍隊的當?shù)厥勘l(fā)動兵變后，1858年印度改由英國君主統(tǒng)治。1877年維多利來女王正式成為印度女皇。 2. The Scramble for Africa 對非洲的掠奪

At the beginning of the 19th century British possessions were confined to forts and slave trading posts on the west coast. Over the 19th century the interior of Africa was gradually discovered and colonized by Europeans. Britain led the way in the race. Apart from the colonies in the South and West, Britain was also involved in the North East in Egypt and the Sudan.

19世紀初英國的占領地局限于西海岸的堡壘和奴隸交易點。整個19世紀歐洲人逐漸發(fā)現(xiàn)并殖民了非洲內陸。在這場瓜分競賽中英國占了較大的優(yōu)勢。除了不斷擴張的南部和西部殖民地后，英國又凱覦東北的埃及和蘇丹。

3. Aggression against China 侵略中國

In 1840, the Opium War broke out between Britain and China. Since then, Britain gradually invaded many coastal areas and imposed a series of unequal treaties upon China.

1840年英國對中國發(fā)動了鴉片戰(zhàn)爭。從那時起，英國逐漸侵略了中國的許多沿海城市，并簽定了一系列不平等條約。

VI. Twentieth Century 二十世紀

1. Britain and the First World War 英國和第一次世界大戰(zhàn)

The Word War I was fought from 1914 to 1918 primarily between two European Power blocs: “the Central power”. Germany and Austria-Hungary, and the “Allies”, Britain, France and Russia. During the war, the Britain lost much. Apart from the loss of manpower, there had been considerable disruption of the economy and society. Out of the war settlement came the establishment of the league of Nations.

第一次世界大戰(zhàn)是從1914年至1918年，戰(zhàn)爭主要在兩大歐洲集團間進行：“同盟國”，包括德國和奧匈帝國，和“協(xié)約國”，包括英國、法國和俄羅斯。一戰(zhàn)中英國損失慘重。除了勞動力損失，還有巨大的經(jīng)濟與社會瓦解。在戰(zhàn)后的安定階段國際聯(lián)盟成立。

3. Britain and the Second World War 英國與第二次世界大戰(zhàn)

(The Second World War was fought from 1939 to 1945. Britain declared war on Germany in 1939. German bombing raids destroyed many cities in England. Britain was great impoverished by the war)

As Adolf Hitler and Nazism showed off their aggressive momentum in Europe, Chamberlain, the Prime Minister, found his policy of appeasement of German aggression was no longer tenable, and was forced to declare war on Germany on September 3,1939.

第二次世界大戰(zhàn)是從1939年至1945年，當阿道夫希特勒及納粹主義顯示他們對歐洲的侵略意圖時，首相張伯倫發(fā)現(xiàn)他對德國傾略所采取的綏靖政策已站不住腳，被迫于1939年9月3日對德宣戰(zhàn)。 4. Postwar Britian 戰(zhàn)后的英國

At the general eiection of 1945 Winston Churchill was heavily defeated.The electorate returned a Labour government. The war hastened (加快) the end of Britain’s empire and its former colonies won independence one after another. Brtain joined in several wars against other countries. The 1960s were the Swinging Sixties(搖擺的60年代)，the permissive age (寬容的時代). The foundations of the welfare state (福利國家) was laid in these years. In the 1980s, Mrs Thatcher started the privatization policy. Britain joined the European Economic the Glorious Revolution in 1688.英Community in1973.) 溫斯頓。邱吉國的君主體制是以君主立憲聞名爾在1945年的大選中慘敗。全體選的。君主政體實際已無實權。它的民選舉了工黨政府。戰(zhàn)爭加快了大權力受限于法律和議會。君主立憲英帝國的滅亡，她的殖民地相繼獨制是從1688年的光榮革命后開始。 立。英國參與了與其他國家的幾個

站長。1960年是搖擺的60年代，<I．The Monarchy君主制

性解放的年代。在這些年中已發(fā)展1.Elizabeth II, her title in the United 成為一個福利國家。20世紀80年Kingdom is “Elizabeth the Second, by 代，the Grace of God of the United 1973年，英國加入歐共體。 Kingdom of Great Britain and (1) One of the most far-reaching Northern Ireland and Her Other consequences of the War was that it Realms and Territories, Queen, Head hastened the end of Britain’s empire. of the Commonwealth, Defender of 二戰(zhàn)最為深遠的結果之一是加速了the Faith. 大英帝國的瓦解。 伊莉莎白二世，她的全稱是“伊莉(2) In 1952 Princess Elizabeth was 莎白二世承蒙大布列顛及北愛爾蘭crowned Queen Elizabeth II. Many 聯(lián)合王國以及她的其他領土和領地people through television saw the 的上帝之恩典，女王，ceremony. 共同信仰的保護者。”

1952年伊莉莎白公主加冕成為伊2.The Queen is the symbol of the 莉莎白女王二世。新發(fā)明的電視使whole nation. In law, She is head of 許多人看到了加冕儀式的過程。 the executive, an integral part of the (4) In January 1973, Britain became a legislature, head of the judiciary, the full member of the European commander-in-chief of all the armed Economic Community which was still forces and the “supreme governor” called the Common Market in 1973. of the Church of England. She gives Britain witnessed the first oil Royal Assent to Bills passed by embargo in 1973. parliament.

1973年1月，英國終于成為歐洲經(jīng)女王是國家的象征。從法律上講，濟共同體的正式成員國。1973年仍她是行政首腦，立法機構的組成部稱為共同市場。1973年英國經(jīng)歷了分，司法首腦，全國武裝部隊總司第一次石油禁運。 令，英國國教“至高無上”(5) Thatcherism 她任命首相和重要的政府官員。對撒切爾主義 議會通過的法案給予御準。 Thatcherism referred to the policies III．Parliament put forward by Margaret Thatcher, 議會

the first woman prime minister in 1.The United Kingdom is a unitary, England in 1979. The main contents not a federal, state. Parliament of her policies included the ①return consists of the Sovereign, the House to private ownership of state-owned of Lords and the House of Commons. industries, ②the use of monetarist 英國是中央集權國家，而不是聯(lián)邦policies to control inflation, ③the 制國家。議會由君主，上議院和下weakening of trade unions the 議院組成。

strengthening of the role of market 2.The main functions of Parliament forces in the economy, and ③an are: (1) to pass laws; (2) to provide, emphasis on law and order. To some by voting for taxation, the means of extent her program was successful carrying on the work of government; and she led one of the most (3) to examine government Policy remarkable periods in the British and administrations, including economy. She resigned (辭職) in proposal for expenditure; and (4) to 1990. debate the major issues of the day. 1979年瑪格麗特.撒切爾成為英國議會的主要作用是：（1）第一任女首相。她提出的政策被為（2）投票批準稅為政府工作提供資“撒切爾主義”。其內容包括國有工金；（3）業(yè)私有化，采用貨幣主義政策以控包括撥款提議；（4）當天的議題辯制通貨膨脹，削弱工會的影響，加論。

強市場因素在經(jīng)濟中的作用，強調The House of Lords 上院 法律和秩序。在一定程度上講，她

的計劃是成功的。她領導英國經(jīng)濟The House of Lords is made up of the 度過了一段最繁華的時期之一。Lords Spiritual and the Lords 1990年她辭職。、 Temporal.The Lords Spiritual are the Archbishops of Canterbury and Yord 第七章 and 24 senior bishops of the Church Government and Administration of England.The Lords Temporal 英國政府機構 consist of 1) all hereditary peers and The United Kingdom is a peeresses of England,Scotland,Great constitutional monarchy, the head of Britain and the United Kingdom(but state is a king or a queen. The United not peers of Ireland);2)life peers Kingdom is governed, in the name of created to assist the House in its the Sovereign by His or Her judicial duties;3)all other life Majesty’s Government. The System peers.The main function of the of parliamentary government is not House of Lords is to bring the wide based on a written constitution, the experience of its members into the British constitution is not set out in process of law-making.上院由神職any single document. It is made up 人員和世俗議員組成。神職包括坎of statute law, common law and 特伯雷和約克大主教及24名高級conventions. The Judiciary 主教。世俗議員包括1）所有英，determines common law and 蘇，大不列顛及聯(lián)合王國的世襲貴interprets statutes. 族，女貴族（但不包括愛爾蘭）；2聯(lián)合王國是君主立憲制國家,國家協(xié)助議院司法工作的終身貴族；3）的首腦是國王或女王。聯(lián)合王國以其他終身貴族。上院的主要作用就君的名義,由國王或女王陛下政府是集中議員集體經(jīng)驗智慧制定法治理。英國的議會制度并不是基于律。

成文憲法,英國憲法不由單一文件The House of Commons 下院 構成,而由成文法,習慣法和慣例組

成。司法部門裁定習慣法或解釋成The House of Commons is elected by 文法。 universal adult suffrage and consists Constitutional monarchy 君主立憲of 651 Members of Parliament 制 (MPs).It is in the House of Commons The British monarchy is known as that the ultimate authority for constitutional monarchy. It means law-making resides.下院議員由成人the monarchy’s power are limited 普選產(chǎn)生，共有651名議員。最高by law and Parliament. The 立法權掌握在下院手中。 monarchy actually has no ral power.

Constitutional monarchy began after 1） Parliamentary Electoral System議會選舉制

A General Election must be held every five years and is often held at more frequent intervals.British citizens,together with citizens of other Commonwealth countries and citizens of the Irish Republic resident in Britain,may vote provided they are 1)aged 18 or over,2)included in the annual register of electors for the constituency,and 3)not subject to any disqualification.A candidate must deposit 500 pound.大選每5年一次，且經(jīng)常不足5年就舉行。英國公民包括其他英聯(lián)邦國家公民和愛爾蘭共和國在英國的居民都有選舉權。選舉條件1）18或18以上，2）選區(qū)全體選民的每年選民登記冊上登記注冊者 3）有資格參選者。候選人必須交納500英鎊保證金。

2）The Political Party System政黨體制

Since 1945 either the Conservative Party or the Labour Parth has held power.自1945年以來，一直由保守黨或工黨輪流執(zhí)政。

Chapter 9第九章 Social Affairs英國社會 III. Religion 宗教

1. Everyone in Britain has the right to religious freedom with out interference from the community or the State. (He may believe in any church or none at all.) He may change his religion at will may manifest his faith in teaching, worship and observance. Except that the Lord Chancellor may be a Roman Catholic, public offices are open without distinction to members of all churches or none. 在英國，人人都有信仰宗教的權利，社會和政府不得干涉。他可以隨意改變宗教信仰，可以在布道，禮拜和儀式中表明他的信仰。除了大法官不可以是羅馬天主教徒外，公共職務對各種信仰或沒有信仰的人一律公開。

2. Established churches國教

There are two established church in Britain: in England the church of England and in Scotland the (Presbyterian) Church of Scotland. 英國有兩大國教，在英格蘭是英格蘭國教，蘇格蘭是蘇格蘭教會（長老教）。

3. Church of England is uniquely related to the Crown in that the Sovereign must be a member of that Church and as “Defender of the Faith”. The Church is also linked with the State through the House of loads. The church of England is not free to change its form of worship, as laid down in the Book of Common Prayer without the consent of Parliament. 英格蘭國教與君主有獨特的聯(lián)系。因為君主作為“國教的捍衛(wèi)者”必須是此教會的一員，他在登基時必須承諾維持國教。國教還通過上議院與國家聯(lián)系起來。沒有議會同意，英格蘭教會不可隨意改變“國教祈禱書”中規(guī)定的禮拜儀式。

4. The government of the Church of Scotland is Presbyterian, that is, government by ministers and elders, all of whom are ordained to office. The Monarch is normally represented at the general assembly by the Lord High Commissioner. 蘇格蘭教的管理時長老制，也就是由教士和長老治理。他們被授予圣職，王室高級代表通常代表君主光臨會議。

5. Unestablished churches 非國教教會

There are include: the Anglican Churches(圣公會)，the Free Churches(自由教會)；(the largest of the Free Churches ? the Methodist Church 最大的自由教會—衛(wèi)理公會)，the Roman Catholic Church（羅馬天主教）。

IV. Festival and Public Holidays 節(jié)假日

1.Christian festivals 基督教節(jié)日 The Christian festival of the year and Christmas, Easter, and Whit Sunday. 其主要的節(jié)日有圣誕節(jié)，復活節(jié)，圣靈降臨節(jié)

Christmas day, December 25th, celebrates the birth of Christ, and it is the greatest of Christian festivals. Easter celebrates the Resurrection (復活) of Christ. Easter is traditionally associated with the eating Easter eggs.Whit Sunday (圣靈節(jié)) celebrates the coming of the Holy Spirit to Christ’s apostles seven days after his death, and it is on the seventh Sunday after Easter.圣誕節(jié)，12.25，紀念耶穌的誕生，是最盛大的基督教節(jié)日。復活節(jié)是慶?；降膹突睢突罟?jié)有吃復活節(jié)彩蛋的習慣。圣靈節(jié)是慶祝基督去世7周后，重新降臨到他的使徒們中間，在復活節(jié)后第7個周日。 2.Other festivals 其他節(jié)日

Britain’s other festivals include New Year’s Day, Gy Fawkes Day (篝火節(jié)), April Fools Day（愚人節(jié)）, Mother’s Day and the Remembrance Day (Armistice Day)

The education system in Britain

1. primary education 初等教育，小學教育

Primary education is compulsory(義務教育) in Britain. It begins at five in Great Britain and four in Northern Ireland. All children have to attend primary school and they finish their primary education at the age of 11. In addition to the many state primary schools(公立小學) which do not ask their pupils to pay fees, there are also some fee-paying independent primary schools (收費的私立小學). The most famous fee-paying primary schools are the preparatory schools which admit children from seven-plus to 11,12 or 13 years old.初等教育在英國是義務教育，大不列顛是從5歲開始，北愛爾蘭是4歲。所有的孩子必須參加初等教育，并在11歲完成。除了許多國家公立小學不向學生收費外，也有一些收費的私立小學。預備學校學生的年齡通常為7歲以上到11 12 13歲。

2.secondary education 中等教育，中學教育

Secondary education in Britain is also compulsory. All the children must receive secondary education after finishing their primary education at the age of eleven. The secondary school age-range(中學生的年齡段) is from 11-18. About 90 per cent of the state secondary school population in Great Britain attend comprehensive schools.Secondary schools include comprehensive schools (綜合中學), secondary modern schools (現(xiàn)代中學) and grammar schools(文法學校). They are state schools（公立學校）。中等教育在英國也是必須的，所有孩子必須在11歲完成初等教育后接受中等教育。中學生的年齡段從11-18。大不列顛90%左右的國屬中等學校學生就讀于綜合中學。 3.higher education 高等教育，大學教育 There are some 90 universities,including the Open University. Most famous ones are Oxford and Cambridge. There is also the Open University which is “open” to all to become students, mainly adult students. 包括開放大學在內，英國共有90所大學。最著名的是牛津和劍橋。還有開放大學，即向所有未來的學生和成人開放。 2. The Media paper 報紙

British newspapers can be divided into three kinds:quality newspapers(高質量嚴肅報紙)， popular newspaper(通俗報紙)， and mid-market newspapers(中間市場

報)。

1.Quality newspapers are directed at readers who want full information on a wide range of public matters. There are 5 quality dailies (Financial Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian, The Independent, and The Times) and 4 quality Sundays (Sunday Telegraph, The Independent on Sunday, The Observer, and The Sunday Times).嚴肅報紙面向那些想全面了解社會事物各方面信息的讀者。共有5家嚴肅日報（《金融時報》、《每日電訊報》、《衛(wèi)報》、《獨立報》、《泰晤士報》）和4家嚴肅周日報（《星期日電訊報》、《星期日獨立報》、《觀察家》、《星期日泰晤士報》）

2.Populary newspapers appeal to people wanting news of a more entertaining character, presented more concisely. There are 3 popular dailies (Daily Mirror, Daily Star and The Sun) and 3 popular Sundays(News of the world, Sunday Mirror, and The people).通俗報紙吸引那些需要娛樂性較強而又簡單明了的新聞的人們。共有3家通俗日報（《每日鏡報》、《晨星報》、《太陽報》）和3家通俗周日報（《世界新聞報》、《星期日鏡報》、《人民報》） The BBC(the British Broadcasting Corporation英國廣播公司) and its programs

BBC is the largest and dominant broadcasting corporation in Britain. BBC World Service broadcasts international news worldwide in 38 other languages. The BBC is state-run（國營）and it is financed from the sales of television licences(出售電視收視證).BBC是英國最大的和獨立的廣播公司。BBC國際廣播電臺用英語和其他38種語言播放全球范圍的國際新聞。國營的BBC的資金來源于收視許可證的銷售。

BBC Network Radio serves（廣播網(wǎng)） an audience of 30 million a week in Britain, broadcasting around 38,000 hours of programmes each year on its 5 networks.BBC廣播網(wǎng)在英國每周就有3千萬聽眾，每年在5個廣播網(wǎng)上播送節(jié)目約38000個小時。. Sports體育運動

1. Many international sports were introduced by the British who take their leisure time very seriously. There is widespread participation in sport in Britain.

英國人很重視休閑時光，許多國際體育項目是由他們推廣開來的，在英國，人們廣泛參與體育活動。 2. Football ( or “soccer” as it is colloquially called ), the most popular sport in England as well as in Europe, has its traditional home in England where it was developed in the 19th century.

足球（口語叫”soccer”）,在英格蘭和歐洲是最受歡迎的運動，其傳統(tǒng)老家在英格蘭，在19世紀得到發(fā)展。

3. The game “Rugby” was invented at Rugby School in Warwich shire in the early 19th century.

英式橄欖球（又稱拉格比足球）于19世紀初發(fā)明于沃爾威克郡的拉格比學校，因此而得名。

4. Cricket, the most typically English of sports, has been in existence since the 16th century. On an international level, 5-day Cornhill Test Matches. 板球，是英國人最典型的體育運動，自從16世紀以來已存在。國際比賽是為期5天的康希爾決賽。

5. Although tennis has been played for centuries, the modern game originated in England in late 19th. The main tournament is the annual Wimbledon fortnight, one of the 4 tennis “Grand Slam” tournaments. 盡管網(wǎng)球已打了好幾個世紀，但現(xiàn)代比賽卻起源于19世紀末的英格蘭。主要比賽是一年一度的溫布爾登兩周賽，這是四大滿貫網(wǎng)球錦標賽之一。

6. There is a considerable following and participation of athletics in Britain. For example, the London Marathon, which takes place every spring.

英國參加田徑的人很多，例如倫敦的馬拉松塞，每年春季舉行。

7. The home of golf is Scotland where the game has been played since the 17th century and naturally the oldest golf club in the world is there: The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers. The most important national event is the Open Championship with the Walker Cup for amateurs and the Ryder Cup for professionals.

高爾夫球的故里是蘇格蘭，自從17世紀以來這項運動就在那兒盛行。全世界最古老的高爾夫俱樂部也在那里：愛丁堡高爾夫球會員榮譽公司。全國最大的比賽是沃爾克杯業(yè)余公開賽和雷德爾杯職業(yè)公開賽。 Major forms of art in Britain 1)museums and galleries

The largest and most important is the British Museum最大和最重要的是英國博物館 2) music

People in Britain are interested in a wide range of music, including classical music(古典音樂), rock and pop misic, Jazz , folk and Light Mucic. In the early 1960s a new pop culture—beat（披頭士）, emerged in Britain’s Liverpool. It was started by a group of young people called Beatles.

英國人喜歡各種各樣的音樂，包括古典音樂，搖滾和流行音樂，爵士樂，民間音樂和輕音樂。20世紀60年代，一種新的流行文化—披頭士，出現(xiàn)在英國的利物浦。這是由一群年輕人組成的樂隊叫披頭士樂隊，又稱甲殼蟲樂隊。 2) Drama

Britain is one of the world’s major centres for theatre,and its dramatic tradition is reflected in the excellent quality and range of its theatre.英國是世界上最主要的劇院中心，其戲劇傳統(tǒng)從其劇院的質量及范圍即可看出。

Arts festivals 藝術節(jié)

The most famous is the Edinburgh International Festival of Music and Drama.It takes place for a period of 3 to 4 weeks between August and September.最著名的是愛丁堡國際音樂戲劇節(jié)。該節(jié)在八、九月間舉行，歷時3-4周。

films 電影

In November each year the National Film Theatre hosts the London Film Festival.每年11月國家電影院主辦倫敦電影節(jié)。

Literature and libraries 文學和圖書館

There are several thousand libraries throughout the country,including the great “copyright”libraries,which are entitled to receive a free copy of every book published in the United Kingdom;libraries of other universities and learned institutions and the Public libraries.全國有幾千所的圖書館，包括‘版權所有’大圖書館。這些圖書館有權免費得到在英國出版的每一本書的樣本，此外還有其他大學、研究所的圖書館和公共圖書館。

PART TWO The United States of American

1.Population, race and ethnic groups 人口和種族

1)introduction 概要

①the third most populous country in the world,with 255.5 million people. ②a nation of immigrants.Immigration accounts for a major source of population growth.There are many racial and ethnic groups. Between 80% and 90% of immigration ot the United States now is from Asian and Hispanic counties.The first immigrants in American history came from England and Netherlands. Population movements are common in America.移民是人口增長的一個主要原因。到目前80%-90%的移民來自亞洲和西班牙語國家。美國歷史上最早的移民來自于英格蘭和荷蘭。人口遷徙在美國很普遍。

2)Black people and the Civil Rights Movement

①blacks and slavery

the largest of the racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S., which 12.1 per cent of the population; the first blacks were brought to North America as slaves in 1619. 美國最大的少數(shù)人種是黑人，占人口的12。1%；1619年最早的人人作為奴隸被運至美國。

②The slave system was formally ended by Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 and the Thirteenth Amendment to the Consititution in 1865.the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s demanded desegregation and equal right.1863年林肯總統(tǒng)的《解放宣言》和1865年的《憲法第13修正案》使奴隸制度正式瓦解。廢除種族隔離和人權平等導致了1960年的民權運動。

2.American History

1) The “discovery” of the New World 發(fā)現(xiàn)新大陸

①The “first Americans” were the Indians 最早的美國人是印第安人 ②In the late 15th century, Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator, supported by the Spanish queen, he led his men to sail across the vast ocean in 1492 and reached some small islands in the now west Indies.He thought he had reached Asia and didn’t know he had disvovered a New Continent.15世紀后期，意大利航海家克里斯多弗.哥倫布，在西班牙女王的支持下,于1492年率領船隊穿越浩瀚的大西洋，抵達了現(xiàn)在西印度群島的一些小島。他誤以為到達了亞洲，并不知道自己已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)了一個新大陸。

③Ameriga Vespucci proved that the land was a new continent.Therefore, the land was named America after him.阿美利歌。韋斯普奇證明了這是新大陸，因此， 2)Causes of the colonization of the New World

Opportunity was a magic word.①The new Would drew English nobles (who dreamed of getting more land and establishing great new estates.). ②Drew other people who could not find jobs in England. ③Most of all , it drew the poor and the homeless from the farmlands and villages of Europe. ④Many settlers came to the English colonies in search of religious freedom because they had been persecuted in England.機遇是一個神氣的詞。1）他吸引了英國的貴族（那些夢想在荒原上創(chuàng)建龐大的新地產(chǎn)的）2）吸引那些在英國無法找到工作的人。3）尤其是吸引了歐洲農場和鄉(xiāng)村的窮人和無家可歸的人。4）許多人為尋求宗教自由而在這英國殖民地定居下來，因為他們在英國受到早叫迫害。

3)The first English colony in the Americas was founded at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. Between1607 and 1733 the British established 13 colonies along the east coast of North America.They were Virginia, Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Rhode Island, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Georlina. 美洲的第一塊英國殖民地于1607年在弗吉尼亞的詹姆斯建立。從1607年到1733年間，英國在北美的東海岸建立了13個殖民地。它們是弗吉尼亞、緬因、新罕布什爾、馬塞、康涅狄格、紐約、羅得島、馬里蘭、北卡羅來納，南卡羅來納、賓夕法尼亞和佐治亞。

In 1620,201 of Pilgrims sailed to the New World in a ship called Mayflower.They arrived at Plymouth and built the Plymouth colony.The Puritans（清教徒）,unlike the Pilgrims(清教徒前輩)who were artisans and peasants,were wealthy,well-educated

gentlemen.The Puritans did not allow religious dissent.The colonists were building a new way of life in the New World.There were a number of features which would play a role in forming the American character.They were:representative from of government,rule of law,respect of individual rights,religious tolerance and a strong of individual enterprise.1620年，清教徒前輩中的201人乘坐“5月花號”船來到新大陸，在普利茅斯建立了殖民地。清教徒和身為手藝人或農夫的清教徒前輩不同，他們富有，是受過良好教育的紳士。清教徒不允許異教存在。殖民者在新大陸建立了一種新的生活方式。以下幾點為美國特色的形成起到一定作用：政府的代表形式，法制，對人權的尊重，宗教的寬容和強大個人進取精神。

3）The American War of Independence and its consequences.美國獨立戰(zhàn)爭極其影響

①the causes:With the development of economy,the people in the colonies wanted more power to determine their own business.But the policy of the British government was to bring the development under control and collect more taxes from the colonies.原因：隨著經(jīng)濟的發(fā)展，而英國政府的政策是要把經(jīng)濟發(fā)展控于股掌，并向殖民地征收更多的稅

②the Boston Tea Party(波士頓茶葉事件): In 1773, several dozen Boston residents dressed as Indians boarded the ships of the British East India Company and threw the tea into the harbor. 1773年，幾十名波士頓居民化裝成印第安人，登上英國東印度公司的船，將茶葉傾入海中。

③the First continental Congress: In September 1774, the First Continental Congress was held in Philadelphia which encouraged Americans to refuse to bry British goods. 第一屆大陸會議：1774年9月，在費城召開，鼓勵美國人抵制英貨。

④Lexington and Concord(列克星頓和康克特)：The War of Independence began at there in 1775. ⑤The Second Continental Congress(three weeks after the battle at Lexington in 1775 ):founded a Continental Army and Navy under the command of Washington; appointed a committee to draft a formal declaration(Thomas Jefferson was the man who draft it), the Declaration of Independence, And adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.第二次大陸會議（1775年的列克星頓戰(zhàn)役三周之后）：建立了大陸軍和海軍，任命華盛頓為總司令；指定了一個委員會負責起草一份正式宣言（托馬斯。杰斐遜起草），1776.6.4通過了獨立宣言。

⑥The Declaration is a clear explanation of the political theory behind the revolution and this theory came from the British philosopher John Locke.宣言清晰地解釋了指導這場革命的政治理論，這一理論源于英國哲學家約翰。洛克。 ⑦The consequences: IN September ,1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed. Britain recognized the independence of the United States; the war was from 1775 to 1781, it shows that, in a just war ,a weak nation can defeat a strong one. American people gained independence and capitalism developed in America. It also had great international influence.意義：1783年9月，《巴黎條約》簽署，英國承認美國獨立；戰(zhàn)爭從1775-1781，表明，在一場正義的戰(zhàn)爭中，弱者可以戰(zhàn)勝強者。美國人民獲得了獨立，資本主義得到發(fā)展。同時具有深遠的國際影響。

4)Establishment of a federal form of govermen: 聯(lián)邦政府的建立

①The Articles of Confederation was unusual in many ways.1)it provided for no king;2)while the Articles created a central government in the form of a Congress,the emphasis was still on state powers.3)the Articles of Confederation was a written constitution for the U.S..But there were serious weaknesses,it was difficult to carry on the business of the government without someone to do the executive’s job.Congress was too large a body to function as government.And Congress had no power to raise taxes.A conference was held in Philadelphia in May 1787 to consider what should be done to make the Articles of Confederation adequate. 十三洲聯(lián)邦憲法的不同之處在于：1）沒有采用君主立憲制；2）確立了國會形式的中央政府，但仍以洲治為主；3）是美國的明文憲法。但也存在嚴重缺陷：無人主持行政工作，政府事務很難執(zhí)行。國會體制龐大，無法起到政府職能，國會無權提高稅收。1787年5月于費城召開了一次大會，討論如何改進十三洲聯(lián)邦憲法。

②The Great Compromise(on July 16,1787): gave each state an equal vote in the Senate but making representation in the House reflect the size of each state’s population.1787.7.16出臺的大折中：賦予各州在參議院中同樣的選舉權,而眾議院中的代表人數(shù)則根據(jù)各州的人口決定。

③The Bill of Rights (1791)，became the first ten amendments to the constitution of the American constitutional—the Bill of Rights.By then,it is agreed, the foundation of the American constitutional system was completed.1791年通過的，成為對《憲法》最早的十項修正案—人權法案。一般認為至此美國憲法體制的建立全部完成。

④the first Congress: met in New York In 1789.

the first President:Washington 5)Consequences of territorial expansion and the westward Movement 領土擴張和西進運動 ①forced England to give up the Old Northwest;迫使英格蘭放棄舊西北地區(qū)

②Purchased the Louisiana from Nepoleon.(1790’s) 向拿破倫購買路易斯安那州

③forced Spain to cede Florida and the Gulf coast.迫使西班牙放棄弗羅里達和墨西哥海岸。 ④Texas added to the Union(1845).1845,德克薩斯加入聯(lián)邦

⑤Obtained California and New Mexico From Mexico by the war with Mexico (1846-1848)從墨西哥戰(zhàn)爭1846-4848，得到加利福尼亞和新墨西哥。

⑥The Gadsden Purchase(1853)

another 30,000 square miles of

Mexican land were added to the territory of the U.S.,in return,the U.S.paid 10 million dollars.1853年的‘加滋登購地’中，又有3萬平方英里的墨西哥變成了美國領土，美國付了1千萬美圓的補償。

6)The American Civil War and its impaction on the development of the U.S

①The conflict beween the North and the South: In the early 1800’s, black slavery disappeared in the north because of industry development. But it continued to exist in the South. In the South, farming remaind the most important way of making a living and the planter farmed a large area of land. Slave labours seemed best suited for producing these crops.19世紀早期，由于工業(yè)的發(fā)展，黑奴在北方消失。但在南方仍然存在。在南方，農耕是最主要的謀生手段，農場主耕種了大片土地。奴隸勞動力似乎最適于這些農作物的生產(chǎn)。

②The Compromise of 1850: the North and the South allowed California to be accepted as a free state while ordering the returning of runaway slaves to the masters.1850年通過了一個折中的方案：同意加利福尼亞為自治州，將逃跑的努力歸還主人。

③Abraham Lincoln (亞伯拉罕. 林肯)：Soon after Lincoln Became the U.S. President, the War broke out on April 12, 1861.He realized that he could win support for the Union at home and abroad by making the war a just war against slavery. So he issued the famous Emancipation Proclamation in 1863.Thus England and France stood by the Union’s side.Many black slaves joined the Union Army. 亞伯拉罕. 林肯:當林肯成為美國總統(tǒng)后，1861.4.12爆發(fā)戰(zhàn)爭，他意識到可以把戰(zhàn)爭變?yōu)榉磁`的正義戰(zhàn)爭，從而獲得國內外對聯(lián)邦的支持。所以他頒布了著名的《解放宣言》。這樣英法各國站到了聯(lián)邦一邊，許多黑奴加入了聯(lián)邦軍。

Lincoln’s speech:“That government of the people,by the people, for the people,shall not perish from the earth.”民有，民治，民享的政府是不會從地球上消亡的。The Thirteenth Amendment,which banned slavery,was added to the Constitution in December,1865.廢除奴隸制的第十三修正案于1865年12月寫入憲法。

⑦Rapid Growth of Capitalism after the Civil War 內戰(zhàn)后資本主義的迅速發(fā)展

After the war, the U.S. saw great developments in Industry, agriculture, science and technology, and population.

①reasons: a stable political environment after the war was over; enough labour supply after black slaves were free; new immigrants; Science and invention played a very important role in accelerating America’s industrial development; the federal goverment put high taxes on foreign imports; the Rich natural resources.原因：戰(zhàn)后穩(wěn)定的政治環(huán)境；黑奴自由，新移民都提供了足夠的勞動力；科學和發(fā)明在美國的工業(yè)發(fā)展中起到重要作用；聯(lián)邦政府對進口商品課以高稅，豐富的自然資源。

②consequences: Both production and capital became increasingly concentrated.生產(chǎn)和資本越來越集中。

3.American History (1900-1945)

1)Economic growth in the early 20th century

①tremendous growth of the American economy(between the end of the civil war and 1900): Steam and electricity replaced human muscle,steel took the place of iron.Machines and oil were used.People and goods could move by railroads.in 1900 it became the largest producer of coal and steel in the world.內戰(zhàn)結束到1900年間，美國經(jīng)濟取得了巨大發(fā)展；蒸汽和電力取代了人力，鋼取代了鐵。機器和石油得到了應用，客運和貨運可以通過鐵路進行。煤和鐵以巨大產(chǎn)量位居世界之首。

②features in the growth of the economy:1) there emerged a growth of industrial and financial mergers. By 1910, incorporation had become the dominant type; 2)With the development of industry and the extension of railroad network,there was a mushroom growth of cities and urbanization; 3)there was a rapid development of new technology. The automobile and radio also developed. America was on the way of becoming a nation on wheels.經(jīng)濟發(fā)展的特點：1）出現(xiàn)了工業(yè)和金融合并發(fā)展的勢頭。到1910年，聯(lián)合企業(yè)已成為主導形式；2）隨著工業(yè)和鐵路網(wǎng)絡的擴張，城市如雨后春筍般發(fā)展起來（都市化）；3）新工業(yè)技術的發(fā)展迅猛。汽車和無線電也發(fā)展起來，美國正在成為一個車輪上的國家。

2)progressivism and some of the reform efforts.

Progressivism, also known as the Progressive Movement, appeared in America at the turn of the 20th century. It demanded government regulation(規(guī)范) of the economy and social conditions ? social area:to improve living conditions of the poor, to ban child labour, work hour limit for women workers,and industrial accident insurance. Political area:to reform state and city governments and economic area:to regulate big businesses.進步運動出現(xiàn)在20世紀初，是一場要求政府調控經(jīng)濟和社會生活條件的運動—社會領域：改善城市貧民的居住條件，禁止使用童工，政治領域：改革市政府和州政府，經(jīng)濟領域：調控大型企業(yè)。 ①the Muckrakers and Progressive Movement: The Muckrakers, a group of reform-minded journalists,made investigations and exposed various dark sides of society.Progressive Movement was not an organized campaign with clearly defined goals.Rather, it was a number of diverse efforts at political,social, and economic reforms.搜集并揭發(fā)丑聞的人，是一群銳意改革的新聞記者，調查和揭露了社會的陰暗面。進步運動不是一場具有明確目標的有組織的運動，而是政治，社會以及經(jīng)濟改革方面一系列不同形式的努力。

3） role of the U.S. in WWI

at the beginning of the war, Wilson said American policy was neutrality, But in fact it pursued a policy of pro-Ally(支持同盟國) partiality. American declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917.The Peace Conference,the Paris Conference,began on January 18,1919.The conference was actually a conference of division of colonies of Germany,Austro-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire and the grabbing of as much as possible from the defeated nations.The result of the Paris Conference was the emergence of the Versailles Treaty System in Europe.戰(zhàn)爭初期，威爾遜聲明美國中立，但事實上采用了親同盟國的偏狹政策。美國于1917年4.6對德宣戰(zhàn)。1919.1.18,巴黎和會召開，這個會議實質上是瓜分德國，奧匈帝國，奧斯曼帝國殖民地，盡可能掠奪戰(zhàn)敗國的會議。巴黎和會的結果是歐洲凡爾賽條約體系的出現(xiàn) 4)characteristics of the 1920s

The 1920s in the U.S. has been described by many historians as a period of material success and spiritual frustration or confusion and purposelessness.the war changed the U.S. from a debtor nation into a creditor. There was further urbanization, new development of technology and mass production. The 1920s in the U.S. has been described as a period of material success and spiritual frustration. More people had cars. The government gave help to industry and business. There existed a highly aggressive and intolerant nationalism. There was the Red Scare in 1919 and 1920. There was the revival of the Ku Klux Klan(三K黨反動組織復活)which claimed a membership of 5 million.20世紀20年代的美國被很多歷史學家描繪成一個物質豐厚而精神崩潰和迷惘的年代。戰(zhàn)爭將美國從債務國變成債權國。進一步的都市化，技術和大規(guī)模生產(chǎn)有了新的發(fā)展。更多的人有了車。政府給予工業(yè)和商業(yè)幫助。產(chǎn)生了一種激進、偏狹的民族主義。一是1919-1920的‘紅色恐怖’；三K黨的復興，宣布已有5百萬黨員。 5)the Great Depression(1929-1937) and the New Deal 大蕭條和新政 ①no regulation or control over various kinds of investment companies.The banking system lacked stability. stock market speculation（股票市場投機） and over expansion of credit.(借貸過度膨脹)stock market crash (1929): America’s stock market crash came on October 24,1929, called the black Thursday 沒有對各種投資公司調節(jié)與控制。銀行系統(tǒng)缺乏穩(wěn)定性。股票市場的投機與信貸過度膨脹。股票崩盤：1929.10.24，被稱為黑色星期四。

②the gross national product(GNP) shrank(收縮) from $87 billion in 1929 to $41 billion in 1933. the unemployed went up; Misery and personal sufferings were widespread.國民生產(chǎn)總值從1929年的870億降到1933年的410億美元。失業(yè)率增加，不幸和痛苦到處可見。

6)Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal

①Roosevelt became the U.S. president in 1932. He had a sure sense of what seemed practical or possible. He was a great communicator, able to talk to people in all walks of life. His “fireside chats”over the radio were listened to by millions of people.羅斯福于1932年成為美國總統(tǒng)，他能準確辨別什么是現(xiàn)實的或可行的。他是一個偉大的交際者，能夠和各界人事談的來。他通過無線電播出的“爐邊談話”擁有數(shù)百萬的聽眾。

②the New Deal: Measure of the New Deal include establishment and strengthening of government regulation and control of banking; Federal government management of relief and security system（社會救濟保障體系）; recovery of industry and agriculture; passage of federal labour laws; improvement of the situation of minorities and members of certain religious groups.These measures,was to “save American democracy”.and help overcome the most serious economic crisis of the capitalist system up to that time.新政：建立和加強政府對銀行的管理和控制；聯(lián)邦政府對救濟進行管理，建立社會救濟保障體系；刺激工，農業(yè)的復蘇；通過勞工法；改善少數(shù)民族和某些宗教團體成員的狀況。這些措施的目的是“拯救美國的民主”，幫助美國克服了當時資本主義所經(jīng)歷的最嚴重的經(jīng)濟危機。 7）America in W W II

①The Second World War was the result of struggle between the great powers for control of the world and military expansion of the countries of Nazi Germany,Fascist Italy and militarist Japan.Isolationism before WW II and neutrality at first二戰(zhàn)是由大國為爭奪世界霸權，以及納粹德國，法西斯主義的意大利和軍國主義的日本進行軍事擴張而導致的。美國第二次世界大戰(zhàn)前的孤立主義和初期的中立政策。

②the Pearl Harbour Incident in December,1941 1941.12月的珍珠港事件

③American wartime objectives and guiding principles for wartime diplomacy美國的戰(zhàn)時目標和戰(zhàn)時外交的指導原則。The objectives were the total destruction of the Axis powers and the establishment of a would order after unconditional victory in accord with American ideals and interest; Two guiding principles: the first was to win the war, the second was to establish a postwar political structure in accord with American interest and to prevent the Soviet Union from over-expansion.戰(zhàn)時目標是徹底摧毀軸心國勢力，并在取得無條件勝利后建立與美國理想與利益符合的世界秩序。兩個指導原則：1是取得戰(zhàn)爭勝利，2是建立一個符合美國利益的戰(zhàn)后政治結構，并防止蘇聯(lián)過度擴張。

④Anglo-American Strategy and differences in Europe. 英美在歐洲的戰(zhàn)略和分歧

A Stratergy of Europe : to defeat Germany first; The second issue was poliy towards the Soviet Union.歐洲戰(zhàn)略：先擊敗德國，2是對蘇聯(lián)的政策。

The differences: The United States was eager to take away from France and Britain their former colonies and let them become independent states. Britain did not like the America’s policy美國渴望英、法的殖民地擺脫英、法而成為獨立國家。英不同意。

⑤American policy towards the Soviet Union美國對的對蘇政策：1to keep the Soviet Union in the war;2） to get the Soviet Union into the war against Japan; 3）to influence Soviet policy and to be very watchful about Soviet expansive intention.1）讓蘇聯(lián)繼續(xù)參戰(zhàn)，2）使蘇聯(lián)卷入對日抗戰(zhàn)；3）給蘇聯(lián)外交政策一定的影響，同時十分警惕蘇聯(lián)的擴張意圖。

⑥Potsdam Conference(1945)波茨坦會議：showed that there were great differences among America, Britain and the Soviet Union.

Chapter 17 America in Postwar Era (1945-1980s) 二次大戰(zhàn)后的美國 1）Origins of the Cold War冷戰(zhàn)的起源

①time: began with the ending of the WW II; Causes: caused by conflicts between the U.S. and the S.U. arose basically from their separate concepts of postwar world order;the different policy: During the Cold War, the U.S. government would support any country which said it was fighting against communism. And the Soviet Union beliveved it should rapidly build up its strength for the final struggle against capitalism.

時間：二戰(zhàn)結束后；原因：美蘇之間的沖突基本源于他們對戰(zhàn)后世界秩序的不同想法；不同政策：在冷戰(zhàn)期間，美國政府支持任何一個表示反對共產(chǎn)主義的國家。蘇聯(lián)相信必須迅速增強自己的實力，同資本主義做最后的抗爭。

②George Kennan (proposed the containmetn policy on February 22,1946)and the containmetn policy: the containment policy became the offical policy towards the Soveit Union until 1989.

1946年2月22日，美國駐蘇聯(lián)大使喬治。凱南在他的電報中主張對蘇聯(lián)采取遏制政策。此后遏制政策作為美國對蘇聯(lián)的官方政策。

2)The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan杜魯門主義和馬歇爾計劃。

①the Truman Doctrine: the U.S government should support any country which said it was fighting against commuism. It was put forward by the U.S. President Truman in 1947

杜魯門主義：美國政府將會支持任何一個表示反對共產(chǎn)主義的國家。這是美國總統(tǒng)杜魯門1947年提出的

②The Marshall Plan: In order to protect Western Eutope from possible Soviet expansion, the U.S. decided to offer Werstern European countries economic aid. It was annouced by Secretary of State George Marshall on June 5, 1947. 馬歇爾計劃：為了保護西歐不受蘇聯(lián)擴張影響，美國決定給予西歐國家經(jīng)濟支援，這是由國務卿馬歇爾于1947. 3）Effects of McCarthyism (麥卡錫主義1950-1954) of on American society：McCarthy used “big lie”tactic to persecute progressive people. He said he had the names of over 200 Communists in the State Department. His lies caused full-scale, anti-Communist hysteria in America and frightened a large number of ordinary Americans.

麥卡錫用彌天大謊這一伎倆迫害進步改革人士。他聲稱掌握了200共產(chǎn)黨人的名單。反對共產(chǎn)黨人的歇斯底里導致美國民眾的極度恐慌。

4)the postwar boom in the U.S.: Since 1945 the U.S. had entered a twenty-five years economic boom. The cornerstones(支柱產(chǎn)業(yè)) were the automobile, housing and defence industries. During this period, the economy grew at an average rate of 3.5 percent per year. The nation’s GNP rose from just over $200 billion in 1946 to close to $1 trillion in 1970. Crucial to the postwar economic boom was the baby boom—the upsurge in births and military spending. More than 63 million babies were born between 1946 and 1961 in the U.S. and this increased consumption. 自1945年以來，美國經(jīng)濟進入了長達25年的繁榮期，經(jīng)濟繁榮的基本為汽車，住房和國防工業(yè)。經(jīng)濟以平均每年3.5%增長。國民生產(chǎn)總值從1946的稍高于2千億美圓增長到1970的近1萬億美元。對戰(zhàn)后經(jīng)濟增長至關重要的是生育高峰—出生高峰和軍隊開支。6350萬以上的嬰兒在1946-1961年出生。 5)U.S China relations (1949-1972) ①The Taiwan issue and U.S. support of Chiang Kaishek: the Taiwan problem was been a key problem in U.S ? Chiana relations. The U.S. provided Chiang with military aid. ②change in U.S policy towards China from Nixon’visit in 1972

③normalization and remaining problems（關系正常化和現(xiàn)存問題）：Soon after the estalishment of diplomatic relations with Chian in 1979, the U.S. Congress adopted the Taiwan Relations Act(臺灣關系法) which violater the spirit of the agreement for the establishment of diplomatic relations.

6)The New Right and their program新右派及其綱領

the New Right consists of two groups of people: the firm believers protestan religious teachings(新教教義) who were concerned with social and moral issues; and the intellectuals who were concerned with political and foreign policy issues. The New Right demanded equal time in school for the teaching of man created by God as opposed to the teaching of evolution(對相反的上帝造人說和進化論實行等學時教育). They opposed abortion(人工流產(chǎn)) and “affirmative action”(在就業(yè)及入學方面優(yōu)侍黑人及其他少數(shù)民族的行動。)

Chapter 18 The U.S. Economy美國經(jīng)濟

1)Factors that contribute to the fast growth of the economy: ①the geographical location of the United States povides very good conditions for the country to grow and become strong. ②the United States has been blessed by being a land rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, together with a moderate climate. ③America has been fortunate in having enough people to provide the labour necessary for a constantly expanding economy. ④ the quality of available labour. The United States has a skilful and willing labour force.

經(jīng)濟快速增長的幾個因素：1.美國的地理位置為國家的發(fā)展壯大提供了良好的條件；2.美國有幸是一塊礦產(chǎn)資源豐富、土壤肥沃的陸地，氣候溫和；3.擁有足夠的勞動力以滿足不斷發(fā)展的經(jīng)濟增長；4.這些勞動力的質量。美國擁有技術高和能動性好的勞動力大軍。

2)Characteristics of the U.S. economy: characterised by a high degree of monopoly.

經(jīng)濟特征：已高度壟斷為特點。 3)the importance of foreign trade:the United States supplies a larger share of the imports of all other countries than does any other country in the world. But the U.S. share of the world trade has declined in recent years.①Currently US exports are about 15% of the world’s total;②the US imports about 13% of all world imports; ③ Canada is the largest single source of goods imported by the U.S., accounting for nearly 30% of the total. Asia provides about 18% of American imports. Thus the economy of these countries is often affected when the U.S. economy is in trouble.

美國進口的商品比世界任何國家都多。但最近幾年比例有所下降。1.美國出口量占全世界出口總數(shù)的15%；2.美國的進口占13%左右；3.加拿大是最大的供應國，占總數(shù)的近30%。亞洲占18%左右。因此，一旦美國經(jīng)濟陷入困境，這些國家也會受到影響。

4)problems facing the US economy: unemployment, inflation, financial deficit, and trade deficit. 經(jīng)濟存在的問題：失業(yè)，通貨膨脹，財政赤字和貿易赤字。

Chapter 19.Political Institution政治體制

1)A workable form of government under the Constitution: a federal system of government which has two layers of rule. 兩極統(tǒng)治的聯(lián)邦政府體制

2)Separation of powers with checks and balances under the Constitution: The Constitution divides the government into three branches: the legislative, the executive and the judicial. Each branch has only part of the powers but not all the powers. The three branches are in balance and they may check each other.

三權分立和制衡制度：憲法將政府劃分為3個部門，立法部門、執(zhí)法部門和司法部門。每個部門只有部分權利不是全部。三個部門權利平衡并互相限制。

3) Safeguards for individual liberty under the Constitution: the Bill of Rights. It is the term used for the first ten amendments to the Constitution. Ti guarantees freedom

00522英語國家概況資料-2

ofreligion,freedomofspee；憲法下的個人自由的保護：人權；4)PowersoftheAmericanpre；總統(tǒng)權利：總統(tǒng)是行政部門首腦；2.國家元首；3.；5）PowersoftheHouseofRepr；6)PowersoftheSenate:theS；8)Thetwo-partysystemandt；①thetwo-partysy

of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly and petition, freedom from unreasonable searches, right to jury trial, right to due process of law and other legal rights.

憲法下的個人自由 的保護：人權。這是最早的十個憲法修正案中的總稱。他確保了宗教、言論、出版、集會、請愿和免受無理搜查的自由，還確保了接受陪審團審判、享受應有的法律程序和其他合法權利。

4)Powers of the American president: ①The president is the head of the executive branch（行政部門首腦）. ②He is also head of state(元首) elected by the whole nation. ③he has some legislative powers(立法權); ④he is responsible for the relations of the United States with foreign nations; ⑤ he signs Bills passed by Congress into law.⑥ he appoints fedeal officials;⑦he has some judicial powers;⑧commander-in-chief(總司令)⑨he can serve for no more than 2 term任期不超過2屆。

總統(tǒng)權利：總統(tǒng)是行政部門首腦；2.國家元首；3.立法權；4.負責美國與其他國家的關系；5.6.委任政府官員；7.司法權利；8.總司令；9. 任期不超過2屆。

5）Powers of the House of Representatives: the House of Representatives can ①introduce legislation, ②revenue bills and ③bring charges against officials, including the President. 眾議院權利：1.立法；2.征稅法案3.指控官員，包括總統(tǒng)。

6)Powers of the Senate: the Senate has the power to ①introduced legislation on any subject except revenue bills (除了稅收法案). It has the authority to ②confirm or reject predidential appointments(總統(tǒng)任命) of high officials as well as the U.S. foreign treaties. ③Its chairman is the Vice President.參議院權利：1立法除稅收。還有一些特殊權利：2批準或否決總統(tǒng)任命的高級官員及外交條約；3.領導人是副總統(tǒng)。 7)The judicial system has evolved into the present structure: According to the Constitution, the judicial power of the U.S shall be vested in one Supreme Court. The judicial system has evolved into the present structure: the Supreme Court, 11 court of appeals, 91 district courts, and 3 courts of special jurisdiction. U.S.judges are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.根據(jù)憲法規(guī)定，美國的司法權屬于最高法院，司法體系結構為：最高法院，11個上訴法院，91個地方法院，3個有特殊司法權的法院，美國的法官是由總統(tǒng)任命并由參議院批準的。

8)The two-party system and the characteristics of the two major parties

①the two-party system:the two party system means that the two major political parties ? now the Democrats and the Republicans ? compete with each other to dominate politics at the federal, state, and local levels.兩黨制意味著兩個主要的政黨—目前為民主黨和共和黨—支配著聯(lián)邦、州及地方的政治舞臺。

②the characteristics of the two major parties:The two major parties are not very different today. They are two coalitions of interests and interest groups(利益集團的聯(lián)合). There is no strict party discipline(黨紀). One does not have to apply or go through necessary formalities to become a member of either party. But there are some differences between them. The Democrats traditionally favour government intervention (主張政府干涉經(jīng)濟)while the Republicans stress the role of the market (市場作用)more. On social issue the Democrats support a strong social security system (社會安全保障體制) while the Republicans oppose large governmental social security programs. In spite of these differenes, the two parties both believe in individualism, defend capitalism and uphold private ownership of means of production(堅持生產(chǎn)資料私有制) .兩個主要政黨今天并沒有實質區(qū)別。他們是利益集團的聯(lián)合。沒有嚴格的黨紀。要想成為某黨成員，不需要申請或辦理必要的手續(xù)。但他們有所不同。民主黨主張政府干涉，共和黨則強調市場作用。在社會問題上，民主黨支持建立強大的社會保障體系，而共和黨反對大規(guī)模的政府社會保障計劃。盡管存在這些區(qū)別，兩黨都信仰個人主義，保護資本主義制度，維護生產(chǎn)資料私有制。

Chapter 20. Education 1)Characteristics of American education:

①formal education in the US consistes of elementary, secondary and higher education.②Elementary and secondary education,which forms public education, is free and compulsory③public and private schools:Public schools are created, financially supported and governed by states or communities, and private ones by religious groups, or nonreligious private organizations or individuals.④the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution said education was included among the responsibilities which were “reserved to the states or the people”, This makes it clear that education is a function of the state, not the federal government.⑤diversity and sameness in educational policy and practice. 1.正式教育包括初等、中等、高等教育2.構成公共教育的初、中等教育是免費和義務的；3.公立和私立學校：公立學校由州或社區(qū)創(chuàng)建、資助和管理，私立由宗教團體、或非宗教性質的個人或組織來創(chuàng)建；4.《憲法第十修正案》把教育包括在‘只屬于州和人民’的職責中，這清晰表明教育是州的職能，并非聯(lián)邦政府的；5.教育政策和教學實踐的多樣性和類同性

2）Elementary and secondary educationin the US

Elementary schools: In some states the elementary school covers grades 1-8, but in some other states it covers grades 1-5 or 6. so it takes 5,6or 8 years to finish the elementary school in the United Stetes. The elementary school curriculum(課程) mainly consists of mastery of the “basics”(基礎課) ， such as reading, writing, and arithmetic or mathematics.一些州小學包括1-8年級，但另一些是1-5或6年級。所以在美國小學要花5，6或8年完成。小學的課程重要包括‘基本知識’的掌握，比如閱讀，寫作，和算術或數(shù)學。

Secondary Schools: Secondary schools are also called high schools in the United Stetes, covering grades 9-12,the junior high school 6or 7-9,and the high school 10-12. High schools are made up of comprehensive, academic, vocational and technical schools with somewhat different tasks. There are 21000 public secondary schools and a number of private secondary schools in the US.中學包括9-12年級或初中6或7到9，高中10-12。中學包括不同教學任務的綜合性學校，普通文化課學校和職業(yè)和技術學校。共有21000所公立中學和一些私立中學。

3)Different types of colleges and universities:

① research universities②doctoral universities ③master’s comprehensive colleges and universities.④Liberal arts colleges ⑤junior colleges ⑥specialized institutions.學院和大學的區(qū)別：1.研究性大學；2.博士學位大學；3.碩士學位綜合大學和學院；4.文科學院；5.兩年專科學院；6.?？茖W院 Famous

universities:Harvard,Yale,Princeton,Columbia and MIT（Massachusetts Institute of Technology）,Stanford,Berkeley.哈佛，耶魯，普林斯頓，哥倫比亞，麻省理工學院，斯坦福，伯克利。 4)the admission system in US univerisities: The general standards for admission include successful completion of high school(高中畢業(yè)), high school grade point average(GPA)( 高中年紀平均積分點成績) and class rank (在班級名次),results from standardized tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SIA)(學生技能測試) and American College Testing Program’s(美國大學考試計劃) examination. But some universities practise open admission(敞開招生): they admit all high school graduates and all residents of the state(州內所有居民) 。大學的入學體系：入學的普遍標準包括中學的順利畢業(yè)，GPA，班級名次，標準化測驗的成績就像SAT和ACTP。但是一些大學也實行開放式入學：他們允許所有中學畢業(yè)生或所有本州的所有居民。 5）The role of the community college:①they prepare students for transferring to a BA program at a four-year institution. ②they provide vocational training;③they give remedial instruction(補習課) to students. ④they offer recreational, cultural activities for adults. ⑤they absorb students in a four-year program who are not qualified into a lower-status vocational program. 社會學院的作用：1.為學生攻讀4年制院校學士學位做準備；2.提供職業(yè)培訓；3.補習指導；4.為成人提供文化娛樂活動；5.將不適應4年制學習的學生吸收到較低一級的職業(yè)培訓中。

5) Adult education

some colleges and universities offer “continuing education” program of associate degrees, graduate studies or professional development.under such system,a worker may continue his study even on a part-time basis.一些學院和大學提供繼續(xù)教育,授予準學士學位，研究生課程或專業(yè)培訓。在這樣的體制下，工人可以在業(yè)余時間繼續(xù)其學業(yè)。

6)Education reform in the 1980s and early 1990s.教育改革

① “a Nation At Risk ”report in 1983 put forward five proposals(P.328) to improve American education;the education reforms had two focuses: the raising of the standards of teaching and learning; the restructuring of the schools.1983年，一篇名為〈處于危機中的國家〉的報道，提出了5條建議改善美國的教育；教育改革有兩個重點：提高教學水平，調整學校結構。

②in 1991,President Bush issued his plan “America 2000: An Education Strategy”. It set six goals(P.330) and put forward a series of proposals to help carry out some of the goals.1991年，布什總統(tǒng)公布了他的〈2000年的美國：一項教育策略〉計劃。確定了6個目標和有效達到這一目標的一系列建議。

Chapter 21. Literature,Architecture and Music 文學，建筑和音樂 Most people like to hold big parties 1)Major American Writers and their at private homes or go to restaurants works or clubs; Mummers Parade化裝游行①Bejamin Franklin(1706-1790)本杰（one of the most popular New 明.富蘭克林: the only writer in the Year’s activities held in Philadelphia colonial period. Works: Poor on the first day）;the Rose Richard’S Almanac, which is an Tournament玖瑰競賽（held in annual collection of proverbs.殖民地Pasadena,California.）慶祝從前一天時期的作家。作品：《窮理查年鑒》晚上—新年前夜就開始了。大多數(shù)一本年度諺語集。 人喜歡在家里開晚會或去飯店、俱②Washington Irving(1803-1882) 華樂部；在費城舉行的化裝游行是新盛頓 歐文: A History of New Youk年活動中最受歡迎的活動之一；玖紐約外史; The Sketch Book最著名瑰競賽在加利福尼亞的怕薩迪納舉的作品為《見聞札記》，his most 行。

famous book, contians “Rip Van 2)Valentine’s Day(Feb. 14)：a day for Winkle”《瑞普.凡.溫克爾》and “The lovers, and one of the loveliest Legend of Sleepy Hollow”《睡谷的傳holiday in the US 說》 3)Easter in the US：the second of the ③Ralph Waldo Emerson(1803-1882) two most important religious 愛默生：the leader of the movement holidays for Christians. It is on the of transcendentalism.超驗 主義運first Sunday after the full moon that 動的領導者Works:Nature, occurs on or after March 21, and it is Self-reliance（論自助）, for celebrating the rising of Jesus Representative Men（代表人物）, Christ from his tomb.Symbols for English Traits and Poems(英國人的性格和詩). 是基督教徒的兩大主要宗教節(jié)日的④Nathaniel Hawthorne(1804-1864) 第二個。是3.21滿月或其后的第一霍桑：The Scarlet Letter紅字 個星期日，為了慶?；揭d從墳⑤Mark Twain1835-1910）馬克吐溫: 墓中復活。象征物：雞蛋和兔子。 The Celebrated Jumping Frog(《著名4)Independence Day(July 4): it is for 的跳蛙》，成名之作) ；The celebrating the Declaration of Adventures of Tom Sawyer(a boy Independence adopted on July book)湯姆.索亞歷險記; The 4,1776.美國獨立紀念日7月4日：Adventures of Huckleberry Finn(his 這是為慶祝1776.7.4獨立宣言批master work)哈克貝利.芬歷險記，準。

則是他最杰出著作; Atramp Abroad5)Halloween(October 31)萬圣節(jié)浪跡海外, Life on the Mississippi密10.31:a night-time children’s 西西比河上, The Golded Age 鍍金holiday.it is a time for frightening 時代and Innocents Abroad異鄉(xiāng)奇costumes, masks parties, games and 遇。 tricks—all for fun.夜晚進行的孩子⑥Walt Whitman(1819-1892) 沃爾們的節(jié)日。這時會有恐怖的穿戴、特. 惠特曼: the first to explore fully 面具、晚會、游戲和惡作劇—一切the possibilities of free verse（探索為了娛樂。

自由詩體可能性的第一人）. 6)Thanksgiving Day(Fourth Thursday Leaves of Grass(his masterpiece)草of November)感恩節(jié)11月第4個星葉集, 期4: a typical American Emily Dickinson(1830-1886) 艾米麗. holiday.turkey, roast pumpkin and so 狄更生:Death was one of the great on.

themes of her work死亡是她作品7)Chrismas(December 25): which 的重要主題之一 celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ,is ⑦Theordor Dreiser(1871-1945)西奧the biggest and best-loved holiday in 多.德萊塞: the representative of the US naturalists in whose works reported

truthfully and objectively the life in Chapter 23 Canada’s geography and the slums.自然主義代表，在他們的history

作品里對貧民窟的生活進行了真實Canada(the capital: Ottawa;渥太華) 而客觀的報道。 Works:Trilogy of 1)Canada’s geography features:①Desire(欲望三部曲); An American lies to the north of the US; the Tragedy(美國的悲劇—被公認為最world’s second largest country after 佳作品，which is considered to be Russia.②it has an extremely varied his best) topography:the east part is ⑧T.S Eliot(1888-1965);won the mountainous maritime provinces Nobel Prize for literature in 1946 have an irregular coastline on the ⑨Emest hemingway(1899-1967)海Gulf of St. Lawrence and the 明威; was awarded the Nobel Prize Atlantic;The west part, the Pacific 諾貝爾文學獎for literature in 1954. border is separated from the rest of A Farewell to Arms永別了，武器; the country by mountain ranges For Whom the Bell Tolls(the two from north to south including the about the first and second world Rockies; the central part is a vast war); 喪鐘為誰而鳴（關于一、二plain.③the climate is unfavorable, 戰(zhàn)的2篇小說）Old Man and the much of Canada has long and cold Sea(his representative book)老人與winters with deep snow.④The 海（代表作）. highest peak is Mount Logan; The 2)Harlem Renaissance(哈萊姆復興) two principal river systems are the and black writing in American Mackenzic River and the St. literature: Lawrence River座落于美國的北部，In the 1920s, Black Litrature 僅次于俄羅斯的世界第二大國；2.developed into an upsurge which has 地形十分復雜：東部山區(qū)沿海省份come to be known as the Harlem 沿勞倫斯灣和大西洋形成不規(guī)則的Renaissace.20世紀20年代， 黑人海岸；西部，太平洋沿岸地區(qū)被南文學蓬勃發(fā)展，后來被稱為‘哈萊北走向的山脈分離，其中包括落基姆復興’。Langston 山脈；中部是一個大平原；3.氣候Hughes(1899-1967) 休斯 不甚宜人，大部分地區(qū)冬季既漫長(masterpiece: The Weary Blues困倦又寒冷，積雪深厚；4.最高峰是勞的BLUES) and Richard 根峰，主要的兩大河流是馬更些河Wright(1908-1960) 賴特與圣勞倫斯河。

（masterpiece: Native Son土生子） 2)Geographical regions and their were the major figures of those characteristics(P365) Black writers. ①Atlantic Province大西洋沿岸諸省 區(qū)：the Grand Banks大淺灘；natural Chapter 22. Holidays and Festivals: harbor that is ice free天然不凍港 1)New year’s Day ②St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Provinces圣勞倫斯及五大湖省celebration in the US: the 區(qū):Ottawa, the capital of Canada, in celebration of this holiday begins the the province of Ontario.

night before-on New Year’s Eve. ③the Canadian Shield加拿大地盾區(qū)Almost half of Canada is covered by the Canadian Shield.It’s a semicircular band of rocky highlands and plateaus.幾乎半數(shù)的地區(qū)都被加拿大地盾所覆蓋。地盾為一半圓形的多石高地和高原帶。

④Prairie provinces大草原諸省區(qū) ⑤British Columbia不列?哥倫比亞區(qū)Vancouver is British Columbia’s largest city and the third largest city in Canada.

⑥Northern provinces and territories北部諸省及地區(qū)

3)The European discovery of Canada:①”Kanata”was an Indian Word for “settlement”②the discovery of Newfoundland by John Cabot, an Italian sea captain, in 1497;②the opening of Canada by Jaques Cartier, a French navigator, in 1535;③the discovery of the huge Hudson Bay by Henry Hudson, an English explorer,in 1610. ④the establishment the interior of French colony in Quebec by Samuel de Champlain, in 1608.’Kanata’是印第安語‘居住者’；2.紐芬蘭是1497年意大船長約翰.卡波特發(fā)現(xiàn)的；2.1535年法國的航海家開放了加拿大內地；3.哈的遜大草原是1610年英國探險家亨利.哈的遜發(fā)現(xiàn)；4.1608年法國探險家塞謬爾.德.尚普在今天的魁北克建立了法國

4)The rivalry between the British and the French: ①the settlement of New Franch(the estern coastal area東海岸) and The English established larger and better settlements in their New England colonies and Virginia.②French lost Newfoundland,Hudson Bay, and Nova Scotia to England in 1713.③the whole of Canada came under the British rule, after the Seven Year’s war betwenn England and Franch from 1756-1763英法競爭：法國殖民地（東海岸地區(qū)），英國人在新英格蘭和弗吉尼亞建立了更大更好的殖民地2.1713年法國人失去了紐芬蘭，哈的遜大草原和新斯科舍，落到英國人手里。3）在7年的英法戰(zhàn)爭后1756-1763，整個加拿大屬于英國統(tǒng)治，

5)Self-government and the foundation of the Confederation:①sir John Macdonald was the first prime minister.During his time, Canada expanded in territory to its present size.②Sir John Wilfrid Laurier was second prime minister, he also founded the Canadian Navy and tried to increase Canada’s control over its foreign relations.③Canada entered WW I, and won the right to sign the Peace Treaty of 1919 in its own name, and gained the membership of the League of Nation(國際聯(lián)邦成員國) 。④Canada became an independent nation from a former dominion in 1931, by the Statute of Westminster.Since then Canada became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.⑤Newfoundland became Canada’s tenth province in 1949.自治與聯(lián)邦：第一任總理約翰.麥克唐納。在他任職期間，加拿擴張他的領土到現(xiàn)在的面積；2.第二任總理是約翰.威爾弗雷德.洛里埃，他創(chuàng)建了加拿大海軍，并努力增強對外的控制權；3.加拿大參加了一戰(zhàn)，獲得了以本國國名簽署的《1919和平條約》的權利，并在國際聯(lián)盟中獲得席位。4.1931年的《威斯敏斯特條例》正式宣布自治領。從此，加成為英聯(lián)一員5.1949年紐芬蘭成為加的第十個省。

6)Canada in WW I and WW II: Canada entered WW I, and won the right to sign the Peace Treaty in its own name, and gained the menbership of the League of Nation; During WW II ,Canada fought as an ally of Britain in WW II加拿大參加了一戰(zhàn)，獲得了以本國國名簽署的

《1919和平條約》的權利，并在國際聯(lián)盟中獲得席位。二戰(zhàn)作為英國的同盟參與作戰(zhàn)。

Chapter27.Australia(capital: Canberra) 堪培拉

1)Australia’s geographical features: ①an old continent of 3 billion years;②the flatest and lowest of all the continents with no high mountains.the highest point is Mount Kosciusko at 2,255 meters above sea level.地理特征：1.最古老的陸地，有3億年的歷史；2.最平坦、最低的陸地，沒有高山。最高點是科修斯科山，海拔2255米 2)Australia’s geographical structure: the country is generally divided into three regions according to the shape of the surface land:the Great Western Plateau; the Eastern Highlands and the Central Eastern Lowlands.地理結構：通常分成3個地形區(qū)：西部大高原，東部高地和中東部低地。

3)Factors that affect Australia’s climate:two district features of climate—a hot continent and a dry continent.①39% of Australia lies in the tropics and most of the rest is close to it.②few mountains ③the dry,sunny,the high pressure cells that affect it most of the years also make the continent hot and dry.④most of Australia is far from the ocean.影響氣候的因素：既干燥又炎熱。1.39%地區(qū)處于熱帶，其他地區(qū)均氣候溫暖2.山地稀少3.全年大部分時間影響氣候的干旱、晴朗、氣壓高致使陸地干燥和炎熱。4.大部分地區(qū)都遠離海洋。 4)Composition of Australia’a population: Australia has a population of 18 million, 1.5% of which, that is 250000 are Aboriginal and Torres strait Islander people.is one of the most urbanized counties in the world.80% of Australians live in the suburbs of coastal cities and towns.人口分布：1800萬，25萬土著人和托雷斯海峽島民，占澳人口的1.5%。是世界上城市化程度最高的國家之一，80%的人居住在沿海城鎮(zhèn)的郊區(qū)。 5)Australia’s built environment(r.478)建設環(huán)境

6)Political divisions in Australia: six states（州）and two territories(區(qū))-New South Wales;Victoria;Queensland; South Australia; Western Australia; Tasmania; Northern Territory; Australian Capital Territory.行政區(qū)劃：分為6個州和2個區(qū)—新南威爾士；維多利亞；昆士蘭；南澳大利亞；西澳大利亞；塔斯馬尼亞州；北部地區(qū)

Canburry is an Aboriginal word for “meeting place”and from it came the name of the capital,Canberra. Chapter33.New Zealand(capital: Wellington)惠靈頓

1)New Zealand’s geography:①New Zealand is in the Southern Pacific Ocean,halfway between the equator and the South Pole. 新西蘭地處南太平洋，位于赤道和南極之間。②The size of the country is similar to Britain or Japan.It has two main islands:North Island and South Island 新西蘭的面積與英國和日本相近。它有2個主要的島，北島和南島 ②Hilly and 3/4 land more than 200 meters above sea level③Three volcanic mountains in North Island: Ruapebh, Ngeaurohoe and Tongariro.④the largest lake: Lake Taupo(托波湖) ⑤the highest peak: Mt Cook in South Island. 3764M⑥the largest river:the Clutha(克魯沙河) in S.I. and Waikato and the Wanganui in N.I. 1.由2島組成：北島和南島2.多山，3/4地區(qū)海拔200米以上3.3座火山在北島：魯阿佩胡火山，扭魯貨伊火山和湯加里4.最大的湖：托波湖 5.最高峰：南島的庫克山，海拔3764米 6最大河流：克魯沙河在南島，懷卡托河和黃加雷河在北島。

New Zealand is just west of the International Date Line,so it is the first country to get the new day. 新西蘭位于國際日期變更線以西，所以它是世界上第一個迎接新一天到來的國家。

Earthquakes and volcanoes are the most serious potential natural disasters.

地震和火山是新西蘭最嚴重的自然災害。

2)Characteristics of New Zealand’s climate;①generally temperates.②varied climate: In the far north it is subtropical(亞熱帶) and in some mountainous areas of South Island it is subarctic（亞寒帶）③Rain falls all year round.1.氣候溫和，2.多樣，最北端是亞熱帶氣候，南島一些山區(qū)則是亞寒帶氣候3.常年下雨

3)Native plants and animals:①”the bush”叢林;native evergreen trees常青樹: Kauri(栲李樹) ，totara(橢榻拉樹), the “cabbage tree”(a giant lily百合科植物).②a nocturnal(awake at nitht) bird that can not fly. It is the national symbol and New Zealander call themselves Kiwis.幾維鳥是一種夜間不會飛的鳥，是新西蘭的象征③ kiwifruit(新西蘭果)：introduced form chinese monkey fruit(彌猴桃).④the only native land mammal are two species of bats.

The red pohutukawa called New Zealand Christmas tree

紅色的波赫塔克瓦被稱為新西蘭的圣誕樹

The kiwi is a national symbol and New Zealanders refer to themselves as Kiwis.

幾維鳥被當作是國家的象征，新西蘭人也這樣稱呼自己

4)Historical background of New Zealand: ①the Maori history and the European history;②The first European to visit new Zealand was a Dutchman, Abel Tasman in 1642;③the first Englishman to visit was Captain James Cook of the British Royal Navy in 1769. ④the first offical governor, William Hobson was sent there by the British government in 1840, representing Queen Victoria, and some Maori chiefs, signed the Treaty of Waitangi.Modern New Zealand was founded.⑤it was granted internal self-government in 1852.⑥Wellington founded by the first settlers became the capital in 1865.⑦Land war between the Europeans and the Maoris broke out in the 1860s. ⑧Gold was discovered in Otago and Westland, but the gold boom ended in 1870. 1.毛利歷史和歐洲歷史，2.第一個到達新西蘭的歐洲人是荷蘭的阿貝爾.塔斯曼，1642年。3.早到達新西蘭的英國人是英國皇家海軍的詹姆士.庫克船長，1769年。4. 1840年第一位總督威廉.赫伯森,代表維多利亞女王和毛利酋長簽訂了《威坦哲條約》，現(xiàn)代新西蘭成立了。1852年，獲得內部自治權6.1865年，移民者建立惠靈頓成為首都，7.19世紀60年代歐洲人和毛利人發(fā)生土地糾紛，爆發(fā)戰(zhàn)爭。8.1870年，淘金熱結束

The Treaty of Waitangi 1840 has three articles 條約的三條內容

1) the Maori people gave the Queen of England the right to make laws for the country

第一，毛利人把立法權交給英國女王

2)promised the Maori own their lands,forests,fisheries and other treasured possessions,if Maori wanted to sell land ,only the Crown had the riht to buy。 第二，毛利人擁有自己的土地，森林，漁場和其他財產(chǎn)，如果毛利人想出售他們的財產(chǎn)，只能賣給英國政府。

3)Maoris were granted all the rights and privileges of British subjects. 第三，保證毛利人享有和英國臣民一樣的權利

The anniversary of the signing, February 6, is celebrated as New Zealand National Day, Waitangi Day, and is a national holiday.

2月6日是條約簽定的紀念日，這一天也就是新西蘭的國慶日，威坦哲日，是全國性的節(jié)日。 6)Characteristics of Maori culture(Maoritanga)毛利文化: Maoritanga means Maori culture, the Maori way of life and view of the world, which is a very important part of New Zealand culture today.是毛利人的生活方式和對世界的看法，這是新西蘭文化中重要的一部分。 Aotearoa—is the Maori name for New Zealand New Zealand

4.Ireland(Capitalublin)都柏林

Ireland is also called the Emerald Isle because of its rich green countryside.two political units:Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.愛爾蘭因其蔥翠欲滴的鄉(xiāng)村景色，又稱綠寶石島。兩個行政區(qū)：北愛爾蘭和愛爾蘭共和國。

1) Ireland’s geographical features:①a basin:the central plain, a limestone plateau surrounded by coastal highlands. ②the highest peak is Carrantuohill(卡朗圖山)，1041m.③the largest river: the Shannon River (香農河) 。④ coast with striking cliffs and heavily indented.⑤Bogs(沼澤) are the most significant feature of Irish landscape.地理特征：1.盆地，中央大平原，石灰石高原被沿海山岳環(huán)繞，2.最高峰為卡朗圖上，海拔1041米，3.最大河流：香農河，4.海岸懸崖突出，犬牙交錯。5.沼澤是最為愛爾蘭地理主要的特征

2)Climate in Ireland:①mild, moist and changeable.Extreme cold, long frosts, heavy snows in winter and scorching days in summer are uncommon.②excessive rainfalls.③six climate regions.氣候：1.溫和，潮濕和多變，冬季嚴寒大雪，漫長霜期，夏季罕見酷暑2.雨水過多，3.6種氣候區(qū)

3)Ethnic composition of Ireland: the basic ethnic stock is Celts with and admixture of Norse, French, Norman and English.種族分類：最主要的是凱爾特人，混有挪威人，法國人，諾曼人和英國人

4)Languages in Ireland:two offical languages—Irish(Gaelic蓋爾語) and English.

5)Irish Catholicism:predominates in Ireland and Catholic religious practice is extremely high in Ireland. Ireland has supplied significant number of priests and missionaries to the outside world.天主教在愛爾蘭占主導地位，愛爾蘭也為其他國家提供大批重要牧師和傳教士。 6)Conflict between the English and the Irish: a traditional source of conflict was religious differences(Protestant vs Catholic);沖突原因是宗教不同，新教和天主教

7)the issue of Northern Ireland: As a result of the conflict ,in 1921, the British signed the Anglo—Irish Treaty ,establishing an Irish Free State with dominion status, with a separate government in the Protestant-dominated North Ireland.北愛爾蘭的成立：1921年戰(zhàn)爭的結果，英國簽署了‘英愛條約’，建立愛爾蘭自由幫，享有自治領的地位，并在新教控制的北愛爾蘭成立獨立政府。

8）foreign policy

Since independence Ireland has adhered to a policy of neutrality and nonalignment.It has contributed personnel to U.N.peacekeeping units in the Middle East,New Guinea,Zaire and Cyprus. joined the EC in 1973.自獨立以來一直奉行中立、不結盟政策，為聯(lián)合國在中東，新幾內亞，扎伊爾和塞浦路斯的維和機構輸送人員。1973年加入歐盟。